文献出处：Vijayeta Srivastava. Why are Workers Resistant to Sharing Knowledge? [J]. Knowledge and process management, 2011, 11(2): 81-92.
原文
Why are Workers Resistant to Sharing Knowledge?
Vijayeta Srivastava
Abstract：With ever increasing competitiveness, expanding volatility and seamless fluidity of the businesses in the 21st century this paper explores and focuses on various multi-dimensional inherent factors of dynamics of an organization and an individual’s working, to understand the resistance show by people towards knowledge sharing and the plausible solutions to overcome it in the near future. Analysis of the organizational factors that result in resistance among workers towards sharing of knowledge is done. A comprehensive study is undertaken to explore and analyse the present literature in identifying the underlying principles and intrinsic characteristics which restrain knowledge workers to share knowledge. Furthermore the paper goes on to uncover the possible steps that could be adopted by management to surmount the resistance shown by knowledge workers based upon deep rooted theoretical findings and inductive reasoning. The paper explores various facets of knowledge management and particularly focuses on factors leading to increased resistance in sharing knowledge from an individual’s viewpoint such as ownership of knowledge (within organizational context) and ideology (within educational and cultural contexts). The research indicates two key observations. Firstly, from an individual’s perspective within an organizational context where reward, recognition and incentive foster and propel knowledge sharing. Secondly, focusing on educational and cultural context from an individual’s perspective, outside to the organizational context, where research indicates that maximum benefits from knowledge sharing can be acquired by instigating clarity and behavioural changes towards knowledge sharing. The implication suggested provides value from managerial point of view in tackling the resistance towards sharing knowledge. Furthermore the paper leads us to the possible solutions that could help in overcoming the resistance and encourage in knowledge sharing. The paper provides a new perspective to the researchers, practioners and students on the extrinsic and innate reasons why a worker is resistant to share knowledge. Further, the paper also provides most relevant and practical solutions to reduce the barriers for sharing knowledge.
Keywords：knowledge management, knowledge sharing, obstacles to knowledge sharing, resistance in knowledge sharing.
1. Introduction
Progressive evolution of global business landscape to one being highly unstable and dynamic has drawn organizations towards proper management of knowledge to attain sustainable competitive edge over the others and deal with the ever-changing market demands. An urgent need to share the expertise and knowledge possessed by people to help innovate, expand processing and sharing of organizational knowledge has been experienced (Argote and Ingram, 2000). However Davenport(1997) suggests that knowledge sharing is an unnatural process. Therefore rather than commanding knowledge sharing, incorporating it in business processes will help foster and stimulate knowledge sharing process within the organization in the long run. The paper aims to identify the reasons that workers are hesitant to share knowledge and to analyse solutions to overcome this resistance.Further this paper proposes the determinants by analysing factors both inside and outside the organisational context and justifies the different ways to encourage people to share knowledge. Here knowledge sharing is being dealt as a social interaction which involves humans as social animal(Gee, 2002).
The paper focuses on providing a holistic view on obstacles to knowledge sharing among employees within the organization and points to the difference in attitudes shown towards the knowledge exchange on the basis of their educational, cultural, moral and psychological background. The paper identifies and justifies the concerns and rationales of underlying knowledge sharing behaviour of workers. In the following sections thematic analysis on past research discloses potential reasons for resistance to knowledge sharing and the essential steps that are needed to be taken in order to overcome this resistance. Further the paper provides the implications and a justifiable explanation of how the encouragement in amending the behaviour and understanding to share knowledge can bring about improvement in all the organizational processes and activities and also lead to a profit for the organization. Using an inductive methodology based on text analysis we disclose the reasons and explanations for limiting or not sharing knowledge in the organization. Gee (2002) suggests that sharing of knowledge is an individualistic behaviour. Resistance shown towards knowledge sharing cannot be grouped for all the individuals and a single reason cannot be determined. The paper develops two strategies for dealing with these categories and concludes by providing different ways in which this positive attitude for knowledge sharing behaviour can be inculcated. Although this paperprovides analysis of all the different factors we call for detailed and longitudinal empirical research to verify the need to separate knowledge workers on the basis of their personal and organizational context to definitively identify the individual reasons for resistance in knowledge sharing (Ipe, 2003).
The key to organisational success can be attributed to effective and efficient knowledge management along with application and reuse of the knowledge throughout organisation (Kearns and Lederer,2003). Knowledge has become more complex as a result of advancements in the technology,business and affiliated disciplines. Knowledge is the key resource for obtaining competitive advantage and knowledge management is the key to sustaining this advantage (Wit and Huysman, 1998).
Knowledge sharing is critical for learning, growth and the development of the employees and the organization. Knowledge sharing enables exchange of process know-how, lessons learnt and experiences (Ipe, 2003). Using knowledge as prime resource is the key to fulfil organisational goals and objectives. Sharing knowledge transforms knowledge into actionable process. Utilisation, exchange and application of knowledge along with brain storming helps in product and service innovation and maximise profits and capitalise market opportunity.
2. Knowledge sharing
The knowledge base theory of firm acknowledges knowledge as a key resource and a critical success factor for organizations. Knowledge is basically regarded as highly valuable and a critical resource for success (Grant 1996; Spender, 1996; Hendriks, 1999). Key to effectively leverage organizational knowledge resources is through effective dissemination and sharing. The knowledge-sharing concept is a notion which can be recognized as collective transmission of thought; idea or experience from one end of a spectrum through a medium to the other end where thought, idea is decoded to understand the meaning and learn from the experience (Davenport and Prusak, 1998). Knowledge sharing can also be defined as an action or an activity performed, having incomparable benefits (Ford and Staples, 2008; Lubit, 2001). Organizations now operate in a very competitive environment and have to continuously evolve to be on the top. Knowledge sharing encompasses the organization and along with its partners and suppliers (Cummins, 2003). Knowledge sharing can be enhanced by communication and interactions including mono access and retrieval (Cummins, 2003). Knowledge sharing acts as a catalyst in improving processes efficiencies and capitalizing on market opportunities. The paper also identifies key rationales that act as barriers for the employees to share their knowledge and endow the organization with the strategic aptitude (Alavi and Leidner, 1999). Research indicates incentive and recognition act as catalysts for knowledge sharing process thus organisations must adopt recognition and incentive as one of the mechanism to facilitate knowledge sharing.
In order to analyse the challenges organizations face in dealing with knowledge sharing, we firstly decide the boundaries and assumptions on what data, information and knowledge mean and create a clear consensus about the terms. Here data can be viewed as a raw set of facts which can be transformed into information by concentrating, contextualizing and characterizing into relevant details.Knowledge is the actionable multifaceted information. Knowledge can be applied with a set of rules and experiences, to create meaning (Davenport and Prusak, 1998; Long and Fahey, 2000). It is something that can be acquired, shared and applied. Knowledge is the intellect, it’s the justified beliefs about relationship among concepts, judgment, know how, experience, values that gives power to individuals and organizations to act intelligently and thoughtfully (Wiig, 1997). Knowledge is contextual, unique in nature; it is embedded in individuals, processes and routines. Knowledge can be classified into two types, explicit and tacit knowledge: explicit knowledge can be systematically stored and transmitted through to individuals in an organized and timely manner, whereas tacit knowledge resides in the mind of the workers (Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995). Further, tacit knowledge is collective representation of “know-how” and “cognitive” abilities (Lubit, 2001). Knowledge is accumulated over a period of time as experience and does not deteriorate; it always increases with continuous use(Dalkir, 2005). Knowledge as defined by Davenport and Prusak (1998, pp 3-6) ‘Knowledge is a fluid mix of framed experience, values, contextual information, and expert insight that provides a framework for evaluating and incorporating new experiences and information. It originates and is applied in the minds of the knower’s. In organizations, it often becomes embedded not only in documents or repositories but also in organizational routines, processes, practices and norms’(Davenport and Prusak, 1998). Kalkan (2008) suggests that organisations need to develop a working definition of knowledge so as not only to manage it but obtain benefits from using knowledge.Traditional factors of production have given way to knowledge as the core of business growth (Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995). The present era marked by use of knowledge as key resource can be termed as knowledge era (Marion and Uhl-Bien, 2007). Organizations are relying on knowledge as their primary resource. Knowledge is being harnessed as a tool for innovation and to develop best practices (Davenport, Long and Beers, 1998; Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995). Therefore, the management of knowledge is a key to effective completion with other businesses at product and service levels. As knowledge within organisation became critical, it gets more important to manage and share knowledge. Research indicates that knowledge sharing acts on the tangible and intangible assets of the organization and works towards in creating sustainable advantage over competitors(Miller and Shamsie, 1996). We define knowledge sharing as the exchange of knowhow, expertise,judgement, and lessons learnt between the employees through a formal or informal network (Spek and Hoog, 1995). Knowledge sharing not only facilitates exchange of knowledge among interested parties but also adds value and creates understanding of best practices and lessons learnt (Wit and Huysman, 1998).
Advancement in technology has provided tools and applications which help in effective and efficient management of knowledge. These are often termed as Knowledge Management Systems. Tools and techniques are required to facilitate knowledge sharing within the organization. It is important to point out that these tools support knowledge sharing rather than driving it (Alavi and Leidner, 1999).Employees (people) are the main drivers of knowledge sharing in an organization, supported by processes and technology. Various techniques are also now available which help in improvising knowledge sharing (Wiig, Hoog and Spek, 1995).
3. Barriers to knowledge sharing
There are internal and external factors in an organization which increase the resistance towards knowledge sharing (Reige, 2005). These barriers to knowledge sharing can be looked from both an individual’s (Long and Fahey, 2000) and organization’s perspective (Nonaka, 1994). It is worth mentioning, that these factors prevent employees from sharing knowledge with co-workers and superiors. Resistance to knowledge sharing often used as euphemism for stating the barriers to knowledge sharing (Riege, 2005).
The sense of losing control and authority over knowledge by sharing is the most prevalent barrier to knowledge sharing among workers (Pfeffer and Sutton, 1999). This fear of losing control and authority hinders knowledge sharing and is detrimental to growth and success. This is further aggravated as knowledge has become the critical success factor; it is not merely a resource but a valuable asset. Thus employees fear that by sharing they are giving absolute rights to their knowledge and cannot obtain monetary benefits. The fear of losing control and putting knowledge into the public domain hinders knowledge sharing (Dalkir, 2005). The employees feel that knowledge is lost when they are not acknowledged and given credit for sharing (Lindsey, 2011). Riege (2005) observes that the lack of formal knowledge sharing processes and limited time allocation to knowledge sharing hinders its success. Organizational structure also plays a critical role in knowledge sharing (Lubit, 2001). In hierarchical organizations more resistance towards knowledge sharing is observed when compared to flattened organisations attributed to the organisational culture. Reige (2005) suggests that this can be attributed to the formal and rigid channels of communication, limited personal contact and effort required in effective knowledge sharing. Many employees relate knowledge with their ability to perform in their job, thus knowledge hoarding gives them a sense of job security (Husted and Michailova, 2002). This results in increased barriers to knowledge sharing.
Within hierarchical organisational structures employees fear that sharing knowledge with their superiors may impact their job security (Lin, H-F., 2007). Formal behaviour, limited interaction and working in silos increase resistance to knowledge sharing. Knowledge sharing needs to be embedded in daily routine. Allocation of time for such purposes not only helps in building trust, confidence but also improves credibility of the employees (Bock et. al, 2010). In addition to these barriers an individual’s age, gender, culture, beliefs, background (social and cultural) also impact knowledge sharing (Riege, 2005; Szulanski, 1996 and Zyngier, 2002). Level of education and skills to communicate also play a vital role. Studies have shown that, communication in all forms play a very important role in knowledge sharing (Meyer, 2002; Davenport and Prusak, 1998). In addition to individual concerns, organisational culture is biggest of all the obstacles faced; closely followed by understanding about the knowledge – its importance and value (Agrawal and Zyngier, 2009).Resistance to change also plays a vital role in promoting or delaying knowledge sharing. To have effective knowledge sharing organisations needs to effectively plan for the same (McDermott and O’Dell, 2001).
Various examples throughout history of knowledge management depict the importance and impact of cultural factors on knowledge sharing and resistance to knowledge management. These cultural factors influence communication and shape the business environment made up of various people belonging to different cultures and geographies. Evidence suggests that individual’s rely more on other individuals with whom they share a relationship not entirely based upon exchange of services. When the underlying connection or relationship is based upon a logical reason,trust, commitment, love, a mutual inspiration, admiration and respect, community and background, between each other then seamless and effective knowledge sharing is observed with least amount of resistance to it. The emotional and spiritual connection in-between people often motivates them towards sharing personal experience and knowledge which most people guard very closely (Bock et.al, 2010).
4. Methodology
Various journal articles were selected via blind search on underlying themes related to knowledge, knowledge management, knowledge sharing, barriers to knowledge sharing, knowledge management issues and obstacles, organizational culture, knowledge management and performance. It was followed by categorization of articles into various themes followed by analysis of text and thematic analysis. After careful study the hypothesis “Does the encouragement for change in behaviour of employees in the organization along with introduction of incentive and recognition help in minimizing the challenges faced in knowledge sharing” was defined. This research paper analyses by identifying the challenges to knowledge sharing from an individual perspective within and external to organization.
Analysis of text helped in understanding and identifying resistance the problem. Further articles were categorised on the basis of organizational, people and technological perspective. During analysis, the plausible reasons of resistance to knowledge sharing were grouped into two categories, keeping employees inside and outside of the organizational context. It was then deducted that rewards and recognition facilitate and reduce resistance to knowledge sharing in the short term within the organizational context. From an individual’s perspective, his/her skills, work practises; trust with other employees and social beliefs plays a critical role in determining resistance to knowledge sharing (Fernie, et. al, 2003). It can be said that with increasing levels of trust among employees can reduce the resistance shown towards knowledge sharing (Long and Fahey, 2000).
Research indicates that incentives, recognition, reward and remuneration motivate employees towards knowledge management and knowledge sharing, this indirectly boost’s the employee’s and organisations performance (Riege, 2005). Although some author’s argue that it is only effective in short run (McDermott, 1999 and O’Dell and Grayson, 1998; Kohn, 1993). Providing incentives,incorporating contribution to knowledge sharing as part of employee performance review and making it one of the key performance indicators can instigate knowledge sharing in a positive manner.Companies like Hewlett Packard, KPMG, Ernst and Young and others stipulate that by adding contribution to knowledge management and sharing to the yearly grading of the employees will have positive effect on the knowledge program (Master, 1999). Introduction of rewards and recognition motivates the employees to contribute more. It is also critical to understand the impact of education, culture and behaviour o knowledge sharing. It is necessary to bring about slow and steady change in the corporate behaviour and help the organization in embracing a knowledge sharing culture (Michailova and Husted, 2003).
Using thematic analysis it was identified that introducing rewards and recognition and acknowledging employee for contribution will enhance knowledge sharing. Established formal knowledge sharing procedures promotes knowledge sharing. On the other hand looking at an individual outside the organizational context their education, social belief and understanding plays a critical role in determining impact on knowledge sharing. The key is to employ individuals conducive to collaborative working by analysing individuals on cultural fit, collaborative working and fit within a knowledge sharing environment. Knowledge management practioners can adopt some of these solutions to successfully facilitate knowledge sharing.
5. Conclusion
Barriers to knowledge sharing can be analysed from multi-dimensional perspective. It is worthwhile to note that resistance to knowledge sharing has been analysed from organizational, people and technological perspective. The study undertaken looks at the factors which increase resistance towards knowledge sharing among workers, and throws light on plausible solutions. The study focuses on obstacles faced in knowledge sharing from organizational and individual perspective (employees and knowledge workers). The researchers analyse the behavioural characteristics of the workers to identify and analyse root cause towards resistance to knowledge sharing. Here organization’s intrinsic and extrinsic characteristics and employee’s behavioural and intrinsic characteristics were analysed. A comprehensive study and analysis by drawing attention on factors and principles which prohibit the human mind from going forward and sharing the experience and knowledge was done. The need to clearly understand the intrinsic and extrinsic behaviour of the organization and its employees and understanding the rationale behind such behaviour is critical to understand reason behind resistance to knowledge sharing. Such thorough and deep understanding will not only result in identifying factors of resistance to knowledge sharing but also will help organisations and knowledge management practitioners to identify and propose solutions and means to reduce resistance to knowledge sharing. The key message here is to not force the knowledge sharing process rather to create opportunities for knowledge sharing and acknowledging employee contribution. Customised employee specific plan of action is required to cultivate knowledge sharing in that employee. This can be built by analysing employee performance and behavioural assessment. However, it is unlikely to find a universal solution to the problem of resistance to knowledge sharing due it varied complex nature. Analysing the data suggests that people often resist to share knowledge as to them it is the key source of power, they have worked hard to earn it, and quite importantly they don’t trust the others when sharing knowledge. The lack of trust among workers to share knowledge is deep rooted because often more times they lose control, authority and credit for that knowledge. The reasons uncovered cannot be classified into one category, thus it needs a bouquet of solutions to tackle this issue. Analysing these issues from an individual’s perspective, internal and external to organisational context assists in classifying these concerns and identifying suitable suggestions.
Similarly efforts and initiative undertaken to encourage knowledge sharing can be divided into two main contexts with the first one considering the personal factors of person and the second one being the organizational factors. Here personal factors include the person’s up-bringing and surroundings, his ideology and his understanding of the meaning of the word knowledge. And organizational factors indicate the organizational culture, its perspective and the organizational history along with the background. Although a lot of studies done until now indicate that organizational factors act as a major influence on the behaviour show by employee towards knowledge exchange, a sufficient number of research also state that their personal behaviour and attitude also contribute in their understanding of the meaning of knowledge in a larger context.
译文
为什么员工不愿意知识共享
摘要:随着竞争的日益激烈，在21世纪商业的流动性和波动性的背景下，本文关注和研究提高组织或个人绩效的多维视角下的内在激励因素，了解知识共享的障碍因素有助于员工进行知识共享并提出可靠的解决措施在不远的未来得以克服这些因素。对组织因素的分析有助于员工知识共享的完成。本文是一篇综合性研究，它对现有文献进行探索和分析，对阻碍知识型员工知识共享的潜在的因素和员工内在特征有独特的见解。而且这篇文章还揭示了通过管理来克服阻碍知识型员工根深蒂固的意识并归纳了一些误区。本文讨论了知识管理的许多方面并特别关注了由于员工个人而阻碍知识共享的因素，比如知识的所有者（包括组织环境在内）和意识形态（教育和文化环境在内）。研究表明两个关键的结果。第一，从个人的角度包括在组织内的报酬、认同度和动机在内培养和促进知识共享。第二，关注个人的教育和文化环境的外部组织环境，这个角度能改变员工的行为并最大化的促进知识共享行为。本文还间接的提出了一些有价值的管理意见来处理阻碍知识共享的情况。而且本文还引导我们提出解决措施来帮助克服阻碍因素并鼓励知识共享的可行性建议。本文提出了一个新的角度给研究者、从业者和学生，关于员工不愿意进行知识共享的外在的和先天的原因。而且，本文也提出了许多相关的和实际的解决措施来减少进行知识共享的障碍。
关键词：知识管理；知识共享；知识共享的障碍；知识共享的阻力
一、简介
全球商业格局演化成一个具有高不稳定性和快速发展的组织，有助于知识管理来获得可持续的竞争力来应对不断变化的市场要求和其他情况。其迫切需要分享知识和经验来帮助人们创新，熟练的掌握和运用已共享的组织知识。然而达文波特（1997）认为知识共享是一个不可能自发的过程。因此知识共享在企业活动过程中慢慢形成而不是命令式的知识共享将长远的培养和激励在组织范围内的知识共享行为。本文旨在分析出员工犹豫是否知识共享的原因和分析出解决措施来克服这些阻碍因素。并且本文更进一步的分析出组织环境的内外所有决定因素和运用不同的方法来鼓励员工进行知识共享。这里的知识共享被视为是一种把人看作社会动物的社会互动方式。
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