Chapter 11 Second language acquisition第二语言习得
知识点：
1. *Definition: second language acquisition; overgeneralization; interlanguage
2. Connections between first and second language acquisition
3. Contrastive analysis
4. *Error analysis
5. Characteristics of interlanguage
6. *Krashen’s Input Hypothesis
7. Individual Differences in second language acquisition: language aptitude; motivation; #learning strategies
考核目标：
识记：Definition: second language acquisition; overgeneralization; interlanguage
领会：Connections between first and second language acquisition; Contrastive analysis; Error analysis; Characteristics of interlanguage; Individual Differences in second language acquisition
简单应用：Krashen’s Input Hypothesis
一、 定义
1. Second Language Acquisition(SLA)第二语言习得：refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language. 指一个人在习得其母语之后是如何习得一门第二语言系统的研究。
2.over generalization过度概括: the use of previously available strategies in new situations. 将以前适用的策略运用于新的场合。
3. interlanguage中介语： learners’ independent system of the second language which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from his native language to the target language. 它既不是本族语，也不是第二语言，而是一个处于本族语和目的语之间的连续体或临界体。
二、 知识点
11.2 Connections between first language acquisition and second language acquisition第一语言习得与第二语言习得之间的联系
1. While the L1 is acquired subcon sciously, the L2 or FL is more commonly learned consciously.
2. In acquiring their L1 children always concentrate on meaning. The L2 learners concentrate on code structure.
3. One learners his directly from reality. The L2 is learnt in manageable sequence
4. In L1 a children apply the rules subconsciously while the L2 learners, after a period of training are able to verbalize the rules.
Interlanguage(IL)语言石化现象：中介语fossilization的主要特征之一(指错误或不地道的表达)
11.3Contrastive analysis (CA)对比分析 (1960s)
native language本族语被认为是造成在学习第二语言或外语中缺乏成功的主要原因，人们在迁移和负迁移之间做出了区分：
Positive transfer迁移----facilitate target language learning促进目的语的学习
Negative transfer负迁移----interfere or hinder target language learning干扰目的语的学习
It is believed that differences between the native language and the target language would pose difficulties in second/foreign language learning and teaching, 本族语和目的语之间的区别会为第二语言（外语）的学习造成困难
e.g. *To touch the society .
*There are more people come to study in the states.
*I wait you at the gate of the school.
Shortcomings of CA：
The CA was soon found problematic, for many of the predictions of the target language learning difficulty formulated on the basis of contrastive analysis turned out to be either uninformative or inaccurate. Predicted errors did not materialize in learner language while errors did show up that the contrastive analysis had not predicted. “differences” and “difficulties” are not identical concepts. 没过多久人们就发现对比分析有问题，因为许多基于对比分析作出的目的语的学习困难的预见，要么是不准确的，要么就是没有信息意义。（预见的的错误在学习者的语言中没有实现，而对比分析贸易预见的错误却出现了。）人们开始意识到“差异”和“困难”并不是同一概念。（盛行一时的CA逐渐被EA所取代。）
11.4Error analysis (EA) 错误分析
The contrastive approach to learners’ errors has shed new light on people’s attitudes: the errors are significant in telling the teacher what needs to be taught, in telling the researcher how learning proceeds and those errors are a means whereby learners test their hypotheses about the language to be learnt.关于学习者错误的对比理论使人们的观点更加明朗化：错误在告诉老师需要教什么和告诉研究者学习是如何进行的是很重要的，那些错误也是学习者测试对所要学习的语言进行假设的一种手段。（错误分析首先是独立或客观地对学习者的中介语进行描写（即他们自己对目的语和目的语本身的描写）然后对两者进行比较以找出不配之处，与对比分析不同，错误分析不是那么看重需学习者的本族语。）
The main purpose for CA is to predict learners errors while that for EA is to explain learner’s error. CA的主要目的是预见学习者的错误，EA是解释学习者的错误。
Two main sorts of errors: Interlingual errors语际错误 & intralingual errors语内错误
1. Interlingual errors 语际错误: mainly result from cross-linguistic interference at different levels such as phonological, lexical, grammatical or discoursal etc. 主要是由于不同层面的跨语言干扰，如音位层、词汇层、语法层或话语层
For examples,
a） Substitution of [t] for [ ] and [d] for [ ]:
three发成tree, this发成dis.
b） Shortening of long vowels长元音的缩短:
sheep发成ship, meet发成mit
2. The intralingual errors语内错误： mainly from faulty or partial learning of the target language, independent of the native language.主要是由于对目的语的错误或不完全的学习造成的，它与本族语无关。
Two types of errors have been well exploited: overgeneralization过度概括 & cross-association互相联想
1） Overgeneralization过度概括 ---- the use of previously available strategies in new situations. 将以前适用的策略运用于新的场合。
e.g. ❀Walked, watched, washed…
*rided, *goed, *doed, *eated…(造成误导和不合适)
❀Jane advised me to give up smoking.
Jane told me to give up smoking.
*Jane hoped me to give up smoking. (造成误导和不合适)
*Jane suggested me to give up smoking. (造成误导和不合适)
❀The girl is in a blue ski jacket.
The girl is dressed in a blue ski jacket.
*The girl is worn a blue ski jacket. (造成误导和不合适)
2） Cross-association 互相联想：refers to the phenomenon that the close association of the two similar words often leads to confusion,两个拼写、发音、意义相近的词，两者之间相近的联想经常会导致混淆，这样的内部干扰称为互相联想。
e.g.
Other/another, much/many, stalagmite/stalactite…
It may also occurs at all levels of language from phonological to syntactic,互相联想可以出现在从音位到句法的所有层面上：
e.g.
The coffee is very hot. I can’t drink it.→ The coffee is too hot to drink.
The apricot杏子 is sour. I can’t eat it. →
* The apricot is too sour to eat it.（混合的句子）
Errors & mistakes语误和差错
Errors语误 ---- unintentionally deviant from the target language and not self-corrigible by the learner (failure in competence)；无意地偏离目的语，而学习者不能自我纠正，它表明的是语言能力上的失败（不可纠正）
Mistakes ---- either intentionally or unintentionally deviant forms and self-corrigible (failure in performance).有意或无意地偏离的形式，并且可以自我纠正，表明的是语言行为的失败。（可纠正）
11.5 Interlanguage (by S. Pit Corder & Larry Selinker)
中介语：被确立为学习者的第二语言系统
Interlangauge中介语： learners’ independent system of the second language which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from his native language to the target language. 它既不是本族语，也不是第二语言，而是一个处于本族语和目的语之间的连续体或临界体。
What learners produce, correct or wrong, are evidence or the approximation from their first language to the target language. 学习者所创造的东西，无论正确与否，都是从第一语言到目的语之间的临界体的证据。
Three important Characteristics of interlanguage中介语的三个重要特征：systematicity系统性, permeability渗透性 and fossilization.语言石化现象
Fossilization语言石化现象： a process occurring from time to time in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language.一个时不时会出现的过程，在这个过程中，不正确的语言特征成为了一个人说或写一门语言的方式的一个不变的部分。
11.6 The role of native language in 2nd language learning
本族语在第二语言学习中的作用
Language transfer语言迁移(behaviorism行为主义):
positive正面迁移 & negative负面迁移（干扰）
Mentalists argued that few errors were caused by language transfer; transfer is not transfer, but a kind of mental process.精神第一性论者认为语言迁移造成的语误很少，因此迁移并不是迁移，而是一种心理过程。
Three interacting factors in determining language transfer第二语言学习的语言迁移中有三个相互作用的因素:
1) A learner’s psychology学习者的心理（学习者如何组织他的本族语）
2) Perception of native-target language distance对本族语和目的语之间举例的感知
3) Actual knowledge of the target language对目的语的现实知识
11.7 Second language learning models and input hypothesis
第二语言学习的模式和输入假设
Behaviorism model emphasizes the role of imitation and positive reinforcement, a “nurture” position;行为主义模式强调模仿与正面强化的作用，处于一个“培育”的位置。
The mentalists or the innativists shift to a “nature” position by stressing that human beings equipped innately with language acquisition device, are capable of language learning provided with adequate language input. 精神第一性论者或语法天生主义者已经转移到一个“天性”的位置，他们强调人天生具有语言习得机制，能够在提供足够输入的情况下学习语言。
The social interactionists argue that language and social interaction cannot be separated. 当今的第二语言习得的模式和理论主要分歧：语言习得和社会互动是互相依赖，不能分开的。
Krashen’s Input Hypothesis 克拉申的输入假设：
Krashen make a distinction between acquisition & learning.两种独立的第二语言学习的方式或途径：习得（非正式、自然的学习）和学习（有意识的）。
He put forward that learners advance their language learning gradually by receiving comprehensible input.他还提出学习者是通过接受“可理解的输入”来逐渐推进他们的语言学习的。
He defined comprehensible input as “i + 1”（他把可理解的输入定义为“i + 1”）:
“i” represents learners current state of knowledge, the next stage is an “i + 1”.
i 表示学习者当前的知识状态，下一个阶段就是i+1
Krashen mistook input and intake, thus receive criticism.（后来他的输入假设受到了批评，因他误把“input”当作“intake”（即已经被学习者内在化了的实际输入部分）
11.8 Individual differences 个体差异
1. Language aptitude语言能力：refers to a natural ability for learning a second language. It is believed to be related to a learner’s general intelligence. John Carroll identified some components of language aptitude指学习第二语言的天生能力。人们认为它是与学习者的总体智力有关，John Carroll曾经对语言能力的几个组成成分作出鉴定即（语言天赋的4种能力）:
1）Phonemic coding ability语言编码能力，2）Grammatical sensitivity语法感受能力，3）Inductive language learning ability（归纳性语言学习能力）推理能力，4）Rote learning ability（背诵学习能力）言语记忆能力
2. Motivation 动机：can be defined as the learner’s attitudes and affective state or learning drive. It has a strong impact on his efforts in learning a second language. Generally four types of motivations have been identified学习者的态度、情感状态或学习动力的动机对学习者在学习第二语言中所作出的努力有很大影响:
1）Instrumental motivation工具性动机，
2）Integrative motivation综合性动机，
3）Resultative motivation结果性动机
4）Intrinsic motivation内在动机
3.Learning strategies学习策略： are learners’ conscious, goal-oriented and problem-solving based efforts to achieve learning efficiency.（ According to Chamot (1986) & Oxford (1990), three types of strategies have been identified）是学习者有意识的、以目的为导向，以解决问题为基础，为提高学习效率而作出的努力（Chamot (1986) & Oxford (1990)所提出的划分得到了广泛的认可）:
1）Cognitive strategies认知策略 ---- analyzing,synthesis and internalizing what has been learned.涉及分析、综合以及将所学的内容进行内在化的策略。
2）Metacognitive strategies元认知策略 ---- planning, monitoring and evaluating one’s learning.计划、监测和评价一个人的学习的技巧。
3）Affect/social strategies影响、社会策略 ---- the ways learners interact with other speakers. 处理学习者与其他言者，本族或非本族的，交际或交往的方法。
Cohen (1998) further distinguishes language learning strategies and language using strategies科恩进一步对语言学习策略和语言使用策略进行了区分，四个分支：
1）retrieval strategies检索策略, 2）rehearsal strategies背诵策略,
3）cover strategies替代策略, 4）communication strategies交际策略
4. Age of acquisition习得的年龄 ：Recent studies support the hypothesis that in terms of learning achievement and grammaticality the younger learners outperform the adults.从学习成就和语法性的角度来看，年幼的学习者比成人的要强，
5. Personality 个性：In terms of communicative ability rather than grammatical accuracy or knowledge of grammatical rules, the personality traits such as extroversion, talkative, self-esteem, self-confidence can be found in successful second language learners ( as in the case of Liyang: Crazy English).从交际能力来看，尽管不同的研究产生了不同的结果，但是，像外向、健谈、自尊、自信这些个性特征都能在成功的第二语言学习者身上找到。
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