第一大类 社会发展类
社会发展的三大理论
In the 19th century, three great classical theories of social and historical change were created: the sociocultural evolutionism, the social cycle theory and the Marxist historical materialism theory. Those theories had one common factor: they all agreed that the history of humanity is pursuing a certain fixed path, most likely that of the social progress. Thus, each past event is not only chronologically, but causally tied to the present and future events. Those theories postulated that by recreating the sequence of those events, sociology could discover the laws of history.
社会发展阶段Ⅰ：殖民主义
The first process was colonialism. Although imperial powers settled most differences of opinion with their colonial subjects with force, increased awareness of non-Western people raised new questions for European scholars about the nature of society and culture. Similarly, effective administration required some degree of understanding of other cultures. Emerging theories of sociocultural evolution allowed Europeans to organize their new knowledge in a way that reflected and justified their increasing political and economic domination of others: colonized people were less evolved, colonizing people were more evolved. When the 17th-century, English philosopher Thomas Hobbes described primeval man as “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short”, he was very much proclaiming a popular conception of the “savage”. Everything that was good and civilized resulted from the slow development out of this state. Even rationalistic philosophers like Voltaire implicitly assumed that enlightenment gradually resulted in upward progress of humankind.
社会发展阶段Ⅱ：工业革命
The second process is the Industrial Revolution and the rise of capitalism which allowed and promoted continual revolutions in the means of production. Emerging theories of sociocultural evolution reflected a belief that the changes in Europe wrought by the Industrial Revolution and capitalism were obvious improvements. Industrialization, combined with the intense political change brought abut by the French Revolution, U.S. Constitution and Polish Constitution of May 3, 1971, which were paying the way for the dominance of democracy, forced European thinkers to reconsider some of their assumptions about how society was organized.
社会公正的概念
Social justice refers to concept of a society in which justice is achieved in every aspect of society, rather than merely the administration of law. It generally refers to a society which affords individuals and groups fair treatment and a just share of the benefits of it. It can also refer to the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within a society.
社会公正的内涵
Social justice is both a philosophical problem and an important issue in politics, religion and civil society. Most individuals wish to live in a society, but political ideologies have different conceptions of what a “just society” actually is. The term “social justice” is often employed by the political left to describe a society with a greater degree of economic egalitarianism, which may be achieved through progressive taxation, income redistribution, or property redistribution. The right wing also uses the term social justice, but generally believes that a just society is best achieved through the operation of a free market, which they believe provides equality of opportunity and promotes philanthropy and charity. Both right left tend to agree on the importance of rule of law, human rights, and some form of a welfare safety net.
对社会公正的反对
Social justice may be unfeasible economically. Many water-poor countries have recognized a “basic right to have drinking water” and then provided that access accordingly. This often resulted in water sources being over-used and then decimated.
On the other hand, some scholars reject the very idea of social justice as meaningless, religious, self-contradictory, and ideological, believing that to realize any degree of social justice is unfeasible, and that the attempt to do so must destroy all liberty. The most complete rejection of the concept of social justice comes from the Friedrich Hayek of the Austrian School of Economics: “The phrase ‘social justice’ is a semantic fraud from the same stable as People’s Democracy.” The purported goal of social justice is to eliminate economic inequities, but because these inequities are largely a result of individuals’ own choices, they can only be corrected by controlling said choices.
对社会公正的批评
Criticism of the idea that there is an objective standard of social justice has come from several circles. First, there are moral relativists (such as the Sophists), who do not believe that there is any kind of objective standard for justice in general. Second, there are cynics who believe that any ideal of social justice is ultimately a mere justification for the status quo. Third, there are libertarians who believe that social justice violates the non-aggression principle. Additionally, postmodernism has also developed its own critique of the concept of social justice.
Many other people accept some of the basic principles of social justice, such as the idea that all human beings have a basic level of value, but disgrace with the elaborate conclusions that may or may not follow from this. One example is the statement by H. G. Wells that all people are “equally entitled to the respect of their fellowmen”.
社会契约与契约理论
According to the will theory of contract, which was dominant in the 19th century and still exerts a strong influence, a contract is not presumed valid unless all parties agree to it voluntarily, either tacitly or explicitly, without coercion. A supposed social contract cannot be used to justify governmental actions such as taxation, because government will initiate force against anyone who does not wish to enter into such a contract. As a result, such an agreement is not voluntary and therefore cannot be considered a legitimate contract at all.
However, the philosophical concept of social contract does not address the same issues as present-day juridical contract theory, making the name “social contract” potentially misleading. For this reason some thinkers preferred the term “social compact”. The key notion of social contract or compact is that the individual consents by entering or remaining on the dominion of an exiting society, which is usually a geographic territory, in much the same way one does when entering or remaining in someone’s household or private property. People are normally brought up from childhood to respect the boundaries of societies, including families, and the rules made by them for their territorial spaces. That is part of the socialization development process.
对社会契约的违反
The social contract and the civil rights it give us are neither “natural” nor permanently fixed. Rather, the contract itself is a means towards an end-the benefit of all-and is only legitimate to the extent that it meets the general interest. Therefore, when failings are found in the contract, we renegotiate to change the terms, using methods such as elections and legislature.
Since rights come from agreeing to the contract, those who simply choose not to fulfill their contractual obligations, such as by committing crimes, risk losing some of their rights, and the rest of society is to accept responsibility for following its rules, along with the threat of punishment for violating them. Most of us are comfortable with laws punishing behavior that harms people because we are concerned about others harming us and don’t plan on harming others. In this way, society works by “mutual coercion, mutually agreed upon”.
社会理论：机会均等
In the pursuit of a meritocracy, pursuit of equal opportunity is essential. Equal opportunity is often considered separate from basic freedoms. For example, freedom of speech is usually not within the realm of equal opportunity but rather within basic rights.
Equal opportunity consists of additional elements crucial to a meritocracy, such as:
1. Consideration for employment, housing, and education free from immutable characteristics such as race, age, or disability;
2. Equal access to goods and services from the government.
实现机会均等是困难的
In practice, methods for fulfilling equal opportunity can be less than complete or ineffective. Indeed, the means by which to measure the success or failure of equal opportunity policies is unclear. Opportunity itself is often difficult-if not impossible-to accurately measure. Thus, in practice, equal opportunity is said to exist when people with similar abilities reach similar results (equality of outcome) after doing a similar amount of work. Indeed, equal opportunity and equality of outcome are often seen as complementary. Other society traditions interfere with equality of opportunity, however; for example, as long as wealth, and thus opportunities, can be passed from one generation to another through inheritance, it is unclear how equality of outcome would come about for two children of similar ability, one born into the elite class and one born into the middle or lower class.
社会福利
A social welfare provision refers to any program which seeks to provide a minimum level of income, service or other support for disadvantaged people such as the poor, the elderly, the disabled, students, unpaid workers such as mothers and other caregivers, and underprivileged groups. Social welfare programs are undertaken by governments as well as non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Social welfare payments and services are typically provided free of charge or at a nominal fee, and are funded by the state, benefactors or by compulsory enrollment of poor themselves.
福利社会
State or nations that provide comprehensive social welfare programs are often identified as having a welfare state. In such countries, access to social welfare services is often considered a basic and inalienable right to those in need. In many cases these are considered natural rights, and indeed that position is borne out by the UN Convention on Social and Economic Rights and other treaty document. Accordingly, many people refer to welfare within a context of social justice, making an analogy to rights of fair treatment or restraint in criminal justice.
七大社会福利类型
Examples of social welfare services include the following:
1. Compulsory superannuation saving programs.
2. Compulsory social insurance program, often based on income, to pay for the social welfare service being provided: these are often incorporated into the taxation system and may be inseparable from income tax.
3. Pensions or other financial aid, including social security and tax relief, to those with low incomes or inability to meet basic living costs, especially those who are raising children, elderly, unemployed, injured, sick or disabled.
4. Free or low cost nursing, medical and hospital care for those who are sick, injured or unable to care for themselves. This may also include free antenatal and postnatal care. Services may be provided in the community or a medical facility.
5. Free or low cost public education for all children, and financial aid, sometimes as a scholarship or pension, sometimes in the form of a suspensory loan, to students attending academic institutions or undertaking vocational training.
6. The state may also fund or operate social work and community based organizations that provide services that benefit disadvantage people in the community.
7. Welfare money paid to persons, from a government, who are in need of financial assistance but who are unable to work for pay.
司法机关和社会福利
Police, criminal courts, prison, and other parts of the justice system are not generally considered part of the social welfare system, while child protection services are. There are close links between social welfare and justice systems as instruments of social control. Those involved in the social welfare system are generally treated much like those in the justice system. Assistance given to those in the justice system is more about allowing an individual to receive fair treatment rather than social welfare. While being involved in the justice system often excludes an individual from social welfare assistance, those exiting the justice system, such as released prisoners, and families of those involved in the justice system are often eligible for social welfare assistance because of increased needs and increased risk of recidivism if the assistance is not provided. In some countries, improvements in social welfare services have been justified by savings being made in the justice system, as well as personal healthcare and legal costs.
人类发展理论
Human development theory is a theory that merge older ideas from ecological economies, sustainable development, welfare economics, and feminist economics. It seeks to avoid the overt normative politics of most so-called “green economics” by justifying its theses strictly in ecology, economics and sound social science, and by working within a context of globalization.
If focus on measuring well-being and detecting uneconomic growth that comes at the expense of human health. However, it goes further in seeking not only to measure but to optimize well-being by some explicit modeling of how social capital and instructional capital can be deployed to optimize the overall value of human capital in an economy-which is itself part of ecology. The role of individual capital within that ecology, and the adaption of the individual to live well within it, is a major focus of these theories.
社会进步指标
Theorists usually measured progression (that is, the difference between one stage and the next) in terms of increasing social complexity (including class differentiation and a complex division of labor), or an increase in intellectual, theological, and aesthetic sophistication. Those 19th-century ethnologists used these principles primarily to explain differences in religious beliefs and kinship terminologies among various societies.
社会进步与政府干预以及两大社会类型
Society was evolving toward increasing freedom for individual; and so that government intervention ought to be minimal in social and political life, differentiated between two phases of development, focusing on the type of internal regulation within societies.
Military and industrial societies are differentiated. ( the earlier, more primitive military society has a goal of conquest and defense, is centralized, economically self-sufficient, collectivistic, puts the good of a group over the good of an individual, uses compulsion, force and repression, and rewards loyalty, obedience and discipline. The industrial society has a goal of production and trade, is decentralized, interconnected with other societies via economic relations, achieves its goals through voluntary cooperation and individual self-restrain, treats the good of individual as the highest value, regulates the social life via and voluntary relation, values initiative, independence and innovation.)
技术进步有赖于其他社会组织
The development of technology is dependent on the presence of other types of social organization. Nobel laureate economist Arthur Lewis observed that the mechanization of factory production in England which became known as the Industrial Revolution was a direct result of the reorganization of English agriculture. The enclosure of common lands in England generated surplus income for the farmers. That extra income generated additional raw materials for industrial processing along with greater demand for industrial products which was difficult to meet by traditional manufacturing process. The opening of sea trade gave an added boost in demand for industrial production for export. Factory production increased many times when production was reorganized using steam energy combined with moving assembly lines, specialization and division of labor. Thus, technological development was both a result of and a contributing factor to the overall development of society.
社会进步与技术革新
Though technological inventions have markedly increased the pace of development, the tendency to view developmental accomplishments as mainly powered by technology is a partial view that misses the bigger picture. Technological innovation was spurred by the general advance in the social organization of knowledge. In the Middle Ages, efforts at scientific creativity were few and isolated from one another, mainly because there were no effective arrangements for the preservation and dissemination of knowledge. Since there was no organized protection for patent rights, scientists and inventors were very secretive about their activities and operations. The establishment of scientific associations and the publication of scientific journals spurred the exchange of knowledge among scientists and created a written record that could be examined by posterity.
社会进步的限制因素
The concept of inherent limits to development arose mainly because development in the past was determined largely by the availability of physical resources. Humanity relied more on muscle-power than thought-power to accomplish work. That is no longer the case. Today mental resources are the primary determinant of development. He who drove a simple bullock cart has now designed ships and aircraft that carry huge loads across immense distances. He has tamed rivers, cleared jungles and even turned arid desert lands into cultivable lands through irrigation. By using his brains he has turned worthless sand into powerful silicon chips that carry huge amounts of information and form the basis of computers. Since there is no inherent limit to the expansion of man’s mental resources, the notion of limits to growth cannot be ultimately binding.
资源对社会进步的制约及四大资源
It has been thought that the capacity for development is severely limited due to the inherent limitation in the availability of natural resources. Resources can be divided into four mayor categories: physical, social, mental and human resources. Land, water, mineral and soil, etc. constitute physical resources. Social resources consist of society’s capacity to manage and direct complex systems and activities. Knowledge, information and technology are mental resources. The energy, skill and capacities of people constitute human resources.
Though physical resources are limited in their availability, the same cannot be said about social, mental and human resources which are not subject to any inherent limits. Even if these appear to be limited at present, there is no fixity about the limitation and these resources can and will continue to expand over time and that expansion can be accelerated if appropriate strategies are adopted. In recent decades the rate of growth has accelerate dramatically.
物质资源和非物质资源在社会发展中的作用
The role of physical resources tends to diminish as society moves to higher levels in the scale of development. Correspondingly the role of non-material resources keeps increasing as development advances. One of the most important non-material resources is information, which has become a key input in modern times. Information is a non-material resource that does not get exhausted by distribution or sharing. Greater access to information helps increase the pace of its development. Ready access to information about economic factors helps inventors to immediately transfer capital to those sectors and areas where it will fetch a higher return. The greater input of non-material resources helps explain the rising productivity of societies in spite of a limited physical resource base.
非物质文化可以提高物质资源的生产力
The application of higher non-material inputs also raises the productivity of physical inputs. Modern technology has helped increase the proven sources of oil by 50% in recent years and at the same time reduced the cost of search operation by 75%. Moreover, technology has shown that it is possible to reduce the amount of physical inputs in a wide range of activities. Scientific agriculture method demonstrated that soil productivity could be raised by application of synthetic fertilizers. Dutch farm scientist have demonstrated that a minimal water consumption of 1.4liters is enough to raise a kilogram of vegetables compared to the thousand liters that traditional irrigation methods normally require. Henry Ford’s assembly line techniques brought down the man-hour of labor required to deliver a car from 783minutes to 93minutes. These examples show that the greater input of higher non-material resources can raise the productivity of physical resources and thereby extend their limits.
社会文化进化论
Sociocultural evolutionists agree that the evolution-like process leads to social progress. Sociocultural evolutionism represented an attempt to formalize social thinking along scientific lines, which was later influenced by the biological theory of evolution. If organisms could develop over time according to deterministic laws. Then it seemed reasonable that societies could as well. They developed analogies between human society and the biological organism and introduced into sociological theory such biological concepts as variation, natural selection, and inheritance-evolutionary factors resulting in the progress of societies through stages of savagery and barbarism to civilization, by virtue of the survival of the fittest. Together with the idea of progress there grew the notion of fixed “stages” through which human societies progress, usually numbering three-savagery, barbarism, and civilization-but sometimes many more.
人口与社会相互影响
The size of the human population, its concentration in particular places, and its pattern of growth are influenced by the physical setting and by many aspects of culture: economics, politics, technology, history, and religion. In response to economic concerns, national governments set very different policies-some to reduce population growth, some to increase it. Some religious groups also take a strong stand on population issues. Leaders of the Roman Catholic church, for example, have long campaigned against birth control, whereas, in recent years, religious leaders of other major faiths have endorsed the use of birth control to restrict family size.
社会体系受到人口的影响
In turn, social systems are influenced by population-its size, its rate of change, and its proportions of people with different characteristics (such as age, sex, and language). Great increase in the size of a population requires greater job specialization, new government responsibilities, new kinds of institutions, and the need to marshal a more complex distribution of resources. Populations patterns, particularly when they are changing, are also influential in changing social priorities. The greater the variety of subcultures, the more diverse the provisions that have to be made for them. As the size of a social group increases, so may its influence on society. the influence may be through markets (such as young people who, as group, buy more athletic equipment), voting power (for example, old people are less likely to vote for school bond legislation), or recognition of need by social planners (for example, more mothers who work outside the home will require child-care programs).
三大概念：社会地位、阶层权利、政治权利
Social status: If you view someone as a social superior, that person will be able to have power over you because you believe that person has a higher status that you do.
Class Power: this refers to people having unequal access to resources. If you have access to something that someone else needs, that can make you more powerful than the person in need. The person with the resource thus has bargaining power over the other.
Political Power: Political power can influence the hierarchical system of power because those who can influence what laws are passed and how they are applied can exercise power over others.
社会机动性与社会地位
In sociology, social stratification is the hierarchical arrangement of social classes, castes and strata within a society. While these hierarchies are not universal to all societies, they are the norm among state-level cultures (as distinguished from hunter-gatherers or other social arrangements).
Status can be changed through a progress of Social Mobility. Social mobility is the change of position within the stratification system. A change in status can be done upwardly in status, upward mobility, or they can move down in status, downward mobility. Social mobility allows for a person to move to another social status other than the one they were born in. Social mobility is more frequent in societies where achievement rather than ascription is the primary basis for social status.
社会数字划分的标准及其三大指标
The digital division of a society is usually measured in terms of citizen/population access to ICT. Among the indicators for measuring access are (1) telephone density (teledensity); (2) personal computer (PC) deployment and penetration; and (3) number of Internet users.
Teledensity is the ratio of population to telephones (traditionally defined as fixed or wired telephone lines). This indicator of the division must be redefined as to include cellular/mobile phone users since in a number of developing countries there are more mobile phones than wired phones.
Personal computer penetration and deployment has also been used to measure access, since it is the most common way of accessing the Internet. However, recently more and more ways of accessing the Internet have been devised.
The number of Internet users is also a way of looking at the digital division. Statistics show that only about 10% of the world’s population is online. Furthermore, most of these Internet users are in the developed Western countries: the US, Canada and Europe account for about 63% of the world’s Internet users. The Asia-Pacific’s share is about 30%. Africa and the Middle East combined account for less than 2% of the universe of Internet users.
工业化之前的社会
In history, many times found themselves changing and tinting their true goals in life to suit the natural flow taken by main stream companies. They moved out of the city and started smaller businesses. Many had small coops in the middle of the countryside because this helped them produce a product that fit more of the consumers’ needs. The products became more intimate and tings such as lace, wood carvings and other intricate home furnishings. These were sold throughout the countryside and the best selling items were shipped to larger cities for assured success.
Most pre-industrial economies had standards of living not much above subsistence, meaning that the majority of the population was focused on producing their means of survival. For example, in medieval Europe, 80% of the labor force was employed in subsistence agriculture.
工业化带来的问题
Industrialization has spawned its own health problems. Modern stressors include noise, air, water pollution, poor nutrition, dangerous machinery, impersonal work, isolation, poverty, homelessness, and substance abuse. Health problems in industrial nations are as much caused by economic, social, political, and cultural factors as by pathogens. Industrialization has become a major medical issue world-wide.
自然生存状态与社会
Without society, we would live in a state of nature, where we each have unlimited natural freedoms. The downside of this general autonomy is that it includes the “right to all things” and thus the freedom to harm all who threaten one’s own self-preservation; there are no positive tights, only laws of nature and an endless “war of all against all”. In other words, anyone in the state of nature can do any thing he likes; but this also means that everyone can do anything he likes to anyone else. To avoid this, we jointly agree to a social contract by which we each gain civil rights in return for subjecting ourselves to civil law or to political authority. In hobbes’ formulation, the sovereign power is not a party of the contract but instead its creation; so it is not bound by it.
Alternatively, some have argued that we gain civil rights in return for accepting the obligation to respect and defend the rights of others. This alternative formulation of the duty arising form the social contract is often identified with militia. Or defense activity.
六大基本自由
The basic liberties include:
1. Freedom of thought;
2. Liberty of conscience as it affects social relationships on the ground of religion, philosophy, and morality;
3. Political liberties (e.g. representative democratic institutions, freedom of speech and the press, and freedom of assembly);
4. Freedom of association;
5. Freedom necessary for the liberty and integrity of a person (freedom from slavery, freedom of movement and a reasonable degree of freedom to choose one’s occupation);
6. Rights and liberties covered by the rule of law.
思维创造性与技术
Though many reasons can be cited for the accelerating pace of technological inventions, one major cause is the role played by mental creativity in an increasing atmosphere of freedom. Political freedom and liberation from religious dogma had a powerful impact on creative thinking during the period of Enlightenment. Dogmas and superstitions had an incredibly restrictive effect on the scope for mental creativity. For example, when the astronomer Copermicus proposed a heliocentric view of the world, it was rejected because it did not conform to established religious doctrine. When Galileo perfected a telescope for viewing the planets, his invention was condemned by churchmen as an instrument of the devil as it seemed to be so unusual and hence fit to be deemed heretic. Such obscurantist fetters on freedom of thought were shattered only with the coming of the enlightenment. From then on the spirit of experimentation began to thrive.
互联网使用的四大障碍
It is already received wisdom among those who are working to bridge the digital division that providing access to technology is only one of many obstacles that must be addressed. Internet access is not enough. The Children’s partnership argues that content is one aspect of the digital division that has been neglected. The four content-related barriers to greater internet uptake across society are:
1. local information barriers;
2. literacy barriers;
3. language barriers;
4. cultural diversity barriers.
完美竞争的概念及其三大要素
The theoretical ideal developed by economists to establish the conditions under which competition would achieve maximum effectiveness is known as “perfect” competition. Although rarely possible, perfect competition, as a concept, provides a useful benchmark for evaluating performance in actual markets. Perfect competition exists when (1)an industry has a large number of business firms as well as buyers; (2) the firms on the average are small; and (3) buyers and sellers have complete knowledge of all transactions within the market. The practical significance of a large number of small firms and many buyers is that the power to influence the behavior of the participants in the market is thoroughly dispersed. In other words, no single person or business has the power to dictate the terms on which the exchange of goods and services takes place. Market results then are truly impersonal. Under conditions of perfect competition, economists contend, goods and services would be produced as efficiently as possible——that is , at the lowest possible price and cost—and consumers would get the maximum amount of the goods and services they desire.
不同文化社会对极端行为的态度
The social consequences considered appropriate for unacceptable behavior also vary widely between, and even within, different societies. Punishment of criminals ranges from fines or humiliation to imprisonment(关押) or exile, from beatings or mutilation(切断) to execution. The form of appropriate punishment is affected by theories of its purpose to prevent or deter(阻止) the individual from repeating the crime, or to deter others from committing the crime, or simply to cause suffering for its own sake in retribution(应得到的惩罚). The success of punishment in deterring crime is difficult to study, in part because of ethical limitations on experiment assigning different punishments to similar criminals, and in part because of the difficulty of holding other factors constant.
生活水平的概念
The standard of living refers to the quality and quantity of goods and services available to people, and the way these goods and services are distributed within a population. It is generally measured by standard such as income inequality(收入不平衡), poverty rate, real income (i.e. inflation adjusted) per person. Other measures such as access and quality of health care, educational standards(教育水准) and social rights are often used too. Examples are access to(有权使用) certain goods(such as number of refrigerator per 1,000 people), or measures of health such as life expectancy(平均寿命). It is the ease by which people living in a time or place are able to satisfy their wants.
The ideal of a “standard” may be contrasted with the quality of life, which takes into account not only the material standard of living, but also other more subjective factors that contribute to human life, such as leisure, safety, cultural resources, social life, mental health, environmental quality issues etc. more complex means of measuring well-being (健康,幸福) must be employed to make such judgment, and there are very often political, thus controversial (有争议的). Even among two nations or societies that have similar material standards of living, quality of life factors may in fact make one of these places more attractive to a given individual or group.
竞争与合作
While cooperation is the antithesis(对立面) of competition, the need or desire to compete with other is a common impetus (推动,促进) that motivates individuals to organize into a group and cooperate with each other in order to form a stronger competitive force. Cooperation in many areas such as farming and housing may be in the form of a cooperative or, alternately, in the form of a conventional business.
Many people resort to this because they may cooperate by trading with each other or by altruistic (利他的,无私心的) sharing.
Certain forms of cooperation are illegal in some jurisdictions (司法权,裁判权) because they alter the nature of access by others to economic or other resources. Thus, cooperation in the form of cartels (卡特尔类型) or price-fixing (协议售价) may be illegal.
个人主义
Individualism is a term used to describe a moral, political, or social outlook that stresses human independence and the importance of individual self-reliance and liberty. Idividualists promote the exercise of individual goals and desires. They oppose most external interference with an individual’s choices-whether by society, the state, or any other group or institution (慈善机构). Individualism is therefore opposed to holism (整体论), collectivism (集体主义), fascism (法西斯主义), communalism (地方自治主义), statism (中央集权下的经济统治), totalitarianism (极权主义), and communitarianism (共产主义), which stress that communal, group, societal, racial, or national goals should take priority over individual goals. Individualism is also opposed to the view that tradition, religion, or any other form of external moral standard should be used to limit an individual’s choice of actions.
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