1.How do you understand behavioristic learning theories? What is your own view of human learning?
Behavioristic theories has two groups: classical behaviorism and neobehaviorism. Classical behaviorism consists of Pavlov's classical conditioning,Thorndike's instrumental conditioning, Watson's behaviorism. They explain the relationship between stimuli and response. They think human behavior can be predicted and controlled and scientifically studied. Pavlov: the dog experiment, conditioned stimuli (the sound of bell), the response(salivation), Thorndike: the cat experiment, the animals learn behavior that is instrumental in helping them reach their goals.the law of exercise (repetition)and the law of effect(reinforcement and punishment)
Neobehaviorism is represented by Guthrie,Hull and Skinner.Guthrie's S-R theory:he believed that learning occurred on any single trial, and that contiguity alone was sufficient to explain it. Hull's S-O-R theory:The whole process was controlled by reinforcement.Reinforcement would be likely to appear in the future,and punish or unreinforced responses were less likely to reappear. Skinner's operant conditioning: the occurence of a stimuli is dependent on the occurence of a response.He distinguishes between operant and respondent behavior.
We can see the behaviorism theories are preminantly concerned with the relationship between stimuli and response.According to them,behavior is acquired or changed when the organism builds up association between stimuli and response either because of the closeness of stimuli and response or by satisfaction which comes from giving a correct response to a given stimuli.
2.What do you think of the cognitive learning theories? What is your own view of human learning?
Cognitive learning theories have Gestalt psychology, Piaget's developmental psychology and Ausubel's theory of meaningful learning. Gestaltists laid emphasis on innate organizing principles in human perception,recognition, sensorimotor skills, learning and even in social conduct. Piaget refers the learning process as the development of new schemata through assimilation and accommodation.Schemata are the cognitive or mental structures by which the individual intellectually adapts to and organizes the environment. Ausubel's :Meaningful learning takes place when the learner has a disposition to relate the new material to what he already knows or when the learning task is potentially meaningful.He is primarily concerned with meaningful verbal instruction,particularly instruction of students by teachers.
They all think human behavior is abstract in mind, and can not be predicted or easily controlled.Human learning is the internal mental thinking. Cognitive theories place greater store by the function of the mind.
3.Who is a better second language learner, the child or the adult? Why?
1.Adults proceed through early stages of syntactic and morphological development faster than children 2 .older children acquire faster than younger children 3.acquirers who begin natural exposure to second languages during childhood generally achieve higher level of second language proficiency than those beginning as adults.4.child second language acquirers will usually be superior in terms of ultimate attainment
Because:1.the biological explanation: left hemisphere, the degree of lateralization, certain aspects of language are not entirely lateralized to the left hemisphere until later, perhaps by puberty. 2.the cognitive explanation:the transition from concrete operational stage to the formal operational stage is a critical one.This ability to think abstractly may be responsible for faster progress of adults in early stages of syntactic and morphological development. 3.the affective explanation: affective filter, negative attitudes prevent the input of language around puberty. 4.other factors: basic interpersonal communication skills and cognitive academic language proficiency.
4.How do you understand the interlanguage theory?
This theory deals with the nature of L2 learners' language systems. It was first formulated as a hypothesis to account for adult L2 learners' performance and later development into a theory. The term "interlanguage" was first used by Larry Selinker to refer to the "attempted meaningful performance " in a second language. Interlanguage is the type of language produced by second and foreign language learners who are in the process of learning a language, is a system and a continuum. What learners produce,correct or wrong, are evidence of the approximation from the first language to the second language.
The features of it are transitional, variable and permeable. Interlanguages vary systematically, and exhibit common acquisition orders and developmental sequences.Interlanguages are influenced by the first language.
5.How do you understand Krashen’s monitor theory? Do you think it is applicable to foreign language learning? Why (not)?
This theory was developed by Krashen,it was at first designed not as an L2 acquisition theory but as a model of L2 performance.Krashen formalized this theory in five hypothoses,dealing with the laws governing L2 acquisition.
a. the Input Hypothesis :i --- i+1
b. the Affective Filter Hypothesis :the weaker,the better;the stronger,the worse
c.the Natural Order Hypothesis:This hypothesis claims that there is a predictable,natural order or the acquisition of grammatical structures in a second language,irrespective of age differences and language backgrounds of acquirers.This order of acquisition for second language is not the same as the order of acquisition for first language,but there are some smilarities.
d. the Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis :This is perhaps the most fundamental of all the five hypothesis.Adults have two distinct and independent and independent ways of developing competence in a second language.One way is language acquisition,it is a subconscious process similar the way children acquire their first language.The other is language learning,is is a conscious process.
e.Monitor Hypothesis:is the relationship between the acquired and learned systems.
6.Illustrate the general learning strategies with examples from yourself or your friends in learning English.
ways in which a learner attempts to work out the meanings and uses of words, grammatical rules, and other aspects of a language
metacognitive strategies :1.thinking about the mental processes used in the learning process2.monitoring learning while it is taking place, 3.evaluating learning after it has occurred
A. advance organizersB. directed attentionC. selective attentionD. self-management
E. functional planningF. self-monitoringG. delayed productionH. self-evaluation
cognitive strategies:processes and behavior which learners use to help them improve their ability to learn or remember something, particularly those which learners use with specific classroom tasks and activities
A. repetitionB. Resourcing C. translationD. grouping
socioaffective strategies:social-mediating activity and transacting with others
7.Illustrate the communication strategies with examples from yourself or your friends in learning English.
A way used to express a meaning in a SL, by a learner who has a limited command of the language. In trying to communicate, a learner may have to make up for a lack of knowledge of grammar or vocabulary.
A. Paraphrase:approximation ;word coinage;circumlocution
B. Borrowing:literal translation;language switch;
C.appeal for assistance D.Mime(哑剧，表演)E.Avoidance:topic avoidance;message abandonment
8.What are the characteristics of “good” language learners? Are you a good language learner? Why (not)?
1. find their own way, taking charge of their learning
2. organize information about language
3. are creative, developing a “feel” for the lang by experimenting with its grammar and words
4. make their own opportunities for practice in using the lang inside and outside the classroom
5. learn to live with uncertainty by not getting flustered and by continuing to talk or listen without understanding every word.
6. use mnemonics and other memory strategies to recall what has been learned.
7. make errors work for them and not against them.
8. use linguistic knowledge, including knowledge of their first lang, in learning a L2.
9. use contextual cues to help them in comprehension.
10. learn to make intelligent guesses.
11. learn chunks of lang as wholes and formalized routines to help them perform“beyond their competence.”
12. learn certain tricks that help to keep conversations going.
13. learn certain production strategies to fill in gaps in their own competence.
14. learn different styles of speech and writing and learn to vary their lang according to the formality of the situations.
9.Discuss the different types of motivation and their relevance to successful L2 learning?
--- inner drive, impulse, emotion, or desire that moves one to a particular action
proper motivation--- facilitate SLA
integrative motivation 融入性动力to integrate themselves within the culture of the L2 group
instrumental motivation 工具性动力to achieve goals utilizing L2
Findings
integrative motivation--- important requirement for successful SLA
but in the Third World countries--- instrumental motivation--- successful SLA
Most situations involve a mixture of both.
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation内在/外部动机
intrinsically motivated activities ---there is no apparent reward except the activity itself.--- more powerful and superior in SLA
extrinsically --in anticipation of a reward from outside and beyond the self
10.What do you think are the most important personality factors which contribute to success in L2 learning? Why?
self-esteem自尊three levels :A. global self-esteem--- relatively stable and is resistant to changeB.situational/specific self-esteem--- appraisals(估价) of oneself in certain life situations---SLA in generalC.task self-esteem--- particular subject-matter area--- one's self-evaluation of a particular aspect of the process:
Findings:
1. important in SLA:all three levels correlated positively with performance on the oral production
2. question:self-esteem --- lang success ;lang success--- self-esteem
inhibition心理障碍All human beings build sets of defenses to protect the ego in their understanding of themselves.
Findings:
1. self-esteem--- more able to withstand threats to their existence --- lower defenses
2. Defenses do not facilitate learning. They prevent us from communicating in a FL
in SLA classroom
to remove the defenses
---create the contexts for meaningful classroom communication to lower the defenses to pave the way for free, unfettered communication
mistakes
mistakes--- threats to one's ego---more defenses
but SLA necessitates the making of mistakes
risk-taking冒险性an important characteristic of successful learning of a SL
Findings
Self-esteem is closely connected to risk-taking factor.
high self-esteem---more risk-taking
implication for classroom teaching:
encourage Ss to guess--- risk-taking
overly high risk-takers with wild gambles--- tamed a bit
anxiety焦虑感---associated with feelings of uneasiness, frustration, self-doubt, apprehension, or worry
complex task --- doubt our own abilities and wonder if we will indeed succeed
SLA --- a long list of complex tasks
two levels:
A. trait anxiety --- global level --- more permanent predisposition to be anxious
B. state anxiety --- more momentary or situational level
Findings:
SLA anxiety --- state anxiety
three components
1. communication apprehension--- learners’ inability to adequately express mature thoughts and ideas
2. fear of negative social evaluation, ---a learner’s need to make a positive impression on others
3. test apprehension over academic evaluation
anxiety --- negative factor
anxiety --- positive factor
--- one of the keys to success
Both too much and too little anxiety may hinder the process of successful SLA
empathy移情度
--- the process of “putting yourself into someone else’s shoes”, of reaching beyond the self and understanding and feeling what another person is understanding or feeling
Empathy differs in different cultures
--- different cultures have different ways to express empathy
Findings:
In SLA, perhaps helpful in the development of communication skills
extroversion/ introversion外向
E--- more sociable, many friends, not like studying by oneself, need to have people to talk to, interests directed outwards to the external environment
I--- quiet, like books rather than people, interests directed inwards to the thoughts and feelings of the self
help or hinder the process of SLA
---not clear
most --- a tendency to be outgoing is connected with successful SLA, willing to take conversational risks
Extroversion may be a factor in the development of general oral communicative competence. Western society values extroversion.
11.Illustrate the hierarchy of difficulty in L2 learning?
L0--- transfer:when there is complete one-to-one correspondence between items or structures of the two languages in contrast,the learner can simply transfer positively these items or structures from the native language to the target language.These items or structures,will cause no difficulties.
L1---coalescence:when two items in the first language become coalesced into the target language,the learner should overlook the distinction he has become used to when he uses the item in the second language.汉语中的她他它-英语的they
L2---underdifferentiation:when an item in the native language is absent in the target language,the learner must avoid that item when he uses the target language
L3---reinterpretation:改头换貌when an item that exists in the native language is given a new shape or distribution in the target language,the learner must learn new shape or distrubution
L4---overdifferentiation:新项the opposite of level2,when a new item in the target language bears little,if any,similarity to that in the native language,the learner must learn it anew
L5---split:opposite of level1,when an item in the native language becomes two or more in the target language,the learner must learn to make a new distinction.
12.Illustrate Chomsky’s theory about language acquisition.
Language acquisition refers to the child's acquisition of his mother tongue,that is,how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.Chomsky claims that human beings are biologically programmed for language and that the language develops in the child just as other biological functions such as walking.He referred to this innate ability as language acquisition device.The LAD was described as an imaginary "black box"existing somewhere in the human brain.The "black box"is said to contain principles that are universal to all human languages.
UG--- Universal Grammar :a set of innate syntactical principles which comprise the initial stage of language acquisition and control the form that sentences of any given language may take
characteristics of UG:
1) Language is“species-specific”.2) Language exists as an independent faculty in the human mind. 3) A child is born with a LAD in his or her brain.4) The process of acquisition consists of hypothesis testing. 5) The LAD, which is responsible for language acquisition, atrophies as the child grows older.
Chomsky’s theory about LA:
innateness hypothesis;hypothesis testing theory;
innateness hypothesis:The principles must be in our genes
evidence:
1) Early age development.2) Uniform acquisition.
3) Freedom of instruction and error correction
The Hypothesis -Testing Hypothesis
LA:stage-by-stage process of cyclical movement between hypothesis application and reformulation.
by this process, the child
a) forms hypotheses;b) tests these hypotheses;c) reformulates.
through this process,
some hypotheses---abandoned ;some---revised;others---reinforced
Chomsky’s theory of mentalism in SLA:
SLA --- rule formation
innate predisposition----to induce the rules of the target language
these rules --- to allow learners to create and comprehend novel utterances
form hypotheses ;test the hypotheses ;modify the hypotheses
13.What are the major sources of errors? How can errors be described?
A. Interlingual语间迁移:refers to the inference of first language,such as the mechanical application of rules,set phrases or items of the first language to L2 contexts.Interlingual transfer explains many errors made at the beginning stage of L2 learning
B. Intralingual语内迁移overgeneralzation of rules of the target language.the most typical example is the application of past tense morpheme"-ed"to irregular verbs in English.Intralingual transfer occurs when the learner has learned some rules of the target language but has not learned the restrictions of their application
C. context of learning:
D. communication strategies:the conscious employment of a verbal or nonverbal mechanism for communicating an ides when precise linguistic forms are for some reason not readily available to the learner at a point in communication.four main communication strategies:avoidance(the learner avoids certain structures or lexical items which he does not know or cannot think of at the moment);prefabricated(in the process of memorizing,one or two components may get wrong);the hird thoritis applied to authority(when a learner gets stuck for a particular word or phrase,he may turn to his interlocutor for help);the fourth is language switch
E. cognitive and effective factors:the learner's style of thinking and personality style can also be sources of errors
errors
---a noticeable deviation from the adult grammar of a native speaker
---reflecting the interlanguage competence of the learner---not self-corrected
14.How are tests distinguished by use? What kind of test is the IELTS雅思? Why?
1) proficiency tests水平测试measures how much of a language someone has learned；they are in no way related to any syllabus or teaching program
2) diagnostic tests诊断性测试show what skills or knowledge a learner knows and doesn’t know;and enable the teacher to identify their specific areas of weakness ad problems ;it relates to the use of information obtained and to the absence of a skill in the learner;
3) placement tests编班测试designed to place learners at an appropriate level in a programme or course;it aims to sort new students into reaching groups so that they can start a course or a program at an approximate level
4)achievement tests成绩测试measure how much of lang learner has learned with reference to a particular course of study or programme of instruction
5) aptitude tests能力倾向测试measure a person’s aptitude for SL or FL learning and which can be used to identity those learners who are most likely to succeed
15.Summarize the difference between quantitative and qualitative research and the oft-used methods.
quantitative research定量研究design an experiment to test a hypothesis:is also called positivistic research.the basic assumptions underlying this type of research lie in the belief that human characteristics and processed that constitute a form of reality occur under a wide variety of conditions,hence they can be generalized to some degree,that different variables related to a complex process can be studied independently,and the ultimate goal of research is to develop a body of knowledge in the form of generations that will hold to some degree over time and in contexts similar to those in which the generations were developed.this type is particularly applicable to large-scale experiments.
qualitative research定性do not set out to test hypotheses, but to observe;is called naturalistic,or postpositivistic research.its basic assumptions run counter to those of quantitative research.Qualatitative researchers believe that each subject or phenomenon is different and can only be studied holistically,because the total setting in which the phenomenon occurs is never the same,therefore,it is unlikely that prediction or control may be reached and attempts to break a complex phenomenon into parts and to study these parts separately cannot succeed.Some of them believe no generations can emerge from human characteristics or processes.
Oft-used methods:
Qualitative
---Introspection
---Participant Observation
---Non-Participant Observation
---Focused Description
--- Pre-experimental
--- Quasi-experimental
--- Experimental
Quantitative
a. introspection内省法with guidance from the researcher, learners examine their own behavior for insights into SLA
b. participant observation参与性观察Researchers take part in the activities they are studying without any specific hypotheses, taking notes on whatever they observe and experience.
c. non-participant observation非参与性观察Researchers observe activities without engaging in them directly.
d. focused description聚焦描述性研究Researchers narrow the scope of their study to a particular set of variables, a particular system of language (e.g morphology) or to explore a particular issue (e.g the influence of the native language on SLA).
a. b. c. d.---descriptive --- descriptions of the SLA process
the goal of descriptive methods is to help researchers understand the SLA process
a.Applied Linguistics:
(definition in Longman Dictionary)
1. the study of second and foreign language learning and teaching
2. the study of language and linguistics in relation to practical problems, such as Lexicography, Translation, Speech Pathology, etc.
From the Broad view---1.anything to which linguistics could be applied. 2 the recovery of speech ability, Lexicography, Translation,
Narrow view--- the application of linguistic findings to language teaching and learning ;lang learning;syllabus design;materials development;the assessment and testing of lang learning;the educational policy in general ;language learning and teaching policy in particular of a country;
b.Interlanguage:The type of language produced by second and foreign-language learners who are in the process of learning a language.
Interlanguage was established as learners' independent system of the second language which is of neither the native language nor the second language,but a continuum or approximation from his native language to the target language.
The features of interlanguage are transitional,variable and permeable.
c.Field Independence:a learner is able to identify or focus on particular items and is not distracted by other items in the background or context--not so sociable or skilled in interpersonal relationships
d.Field Dependence:场依存---领域依附感
--- a learner tends to look at the whole of a learning task which contains many items.--- The learner has difficulty in studying a particular item when it occurs within a“field”of other items.--socially sensitive, with good skills in interpersonal relationships.
e.Ambiguity tolerance:--- degree to be willing to tolerate ideas and propositions that run counter to your own belief system or structure of knowledge; some---more open-minded; others---more close-minded, dogmatic
findings:
high tolerance for ambiguity --- slightly more successful in SLA
f.reflectivity :
---systematic, make a slower, more calculated decision
---weigh all the considerations in a problem, work out all the loopholes, after extensive reflection, carefully venture a solution
make fewer errors in reading --- benefit from inductive learning situations---remain longer at a particular stage with larger leaps form stage to stage
G.impulsivity:---intuitive, make a quick gambling guess at an answer to a problem ---make a number of different gambles on the basis of intuition
--- fast readers--- go through a number rapid transitions of semigrammatical stages of interlanguage
h.metacognitive strategies:
thinking about the mental processes used in the learning process--monitoring learning while it is taking place, --evaluating learning after it has occurred
A. advance organizers B. directed attention C. selective attention
D. self-management E. functional planning F. self-monitoring
G. delayed production H. self-evaluation
i.cognitive strategies:
processes and behavior which learners use to help them improve their ability to learn or remember something, particularly those which learners use with specific classroom tasks and activities
A. repetitionB. resourcingC. translationD. groupingE. note-takingF. Deduction
G. RecombinationH. imageryI. auditory representationJ. keywordK. contextualization
L. elaborationM. transferN. inferencing
j.cultural stereotyping:文化定式
---forming an oversimplified picture of other cultures in the bias of our own culture-bound world view.
positive
---help a person to understand another culture in general and the differences between that culture and his own culture
negative
---judge a single member of a culture by overall traits of the culture is both to prejudge and misjudge that person
k.acculturation :文化适应
---process of becoming adapted to a new culture
acculturation in SL--- the social and psychological integration of the learner with the TL group
facilitate SLA
l.culture shock:
--anxiety resulting from the disorientation encountered upon entering a new culture.It refers to the strong feelings of discomfort,fear,or insecurity which a person may have when he enters another culture.Culture shock,therefore,is associated with feelings of estrangement,anger,hostility,indecision,frustration,unhappiness,loneliness,homesick,and even physical illness.Culture shock has generally been considered as having a negative effect on L2 learning.
m.mistakes and errors:
Mistakes:a failure of oerformance
---a performance error that is either a random guess or a slip
---a failure to utilize a known system correctly---self-corrected
Errors:a failure of competence
---a noticeable deviation from the adult grammar of a native speaker
---reflecting the interlanguage competence of the learner---not self-corrected
n.discourse analysis:话语/语篇分析
--- the study of how sentences in spoken and written language form larger meaningful units such as paragraphs, conversations, etc.
o.communicative competence:
--- competence enabling us to convey and interpret messages and to negotiate meanings interpersonally within specific contexts
Four subcategories:1)grammatical competence2)discourse competence3) sociolinguistic competence 4) strategic competence
p.discrete-point test and integrative test:
discrete-point tests
---measure knowledge of individual lang items
integrative tests
---requires the learner to use several lang skills at the same time
q.control group and experimental group:
Control group控制组group of subjects who are not given the treatment in research
Experimental group实验组consists of subjects who are given the treatment
r.population and sample:
Sample样本the subjects who are selected to participate in a research study
Population；the group which the subjects represent, and from which they are selected
s.case study: the study of the speech, writing, or lang use of one person, either at one point in time or over a period of time
T.longitudinal study and cross-sectional study:
Longitudinal study--- an individual or group is studied over a period of time
Cross-sectional study---the study of a group of different individuals or subjects at a single point in time, to study a particular topic or aspect of lang development
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