Compare and Contrast Similarities and Differences between Different Cognitive Learning Theories

Compare and Contrast Similarities and Differences between Different Cognitive Learning Theories

1. Main Cognitive Theories

1.1 Learning Theory of Gestalt Psychology

Gestalt is a perspective focuses on the belief that human consciousness cannot be broken down into its elements. This approach to psychology was founded on the concept of the gestalt, or whole. Gestalt psychologists led by Max Wertheimer (1880 - 1943), Wolfgang Kohler (1887 – 1967) and Kurt Koffka (1886 – 1941) have made substantial contributions to our understanding of perception. Gestaltists pointed out that perception has meaning only when it is seen as a whole.

1) Gestalt Principles of Learning

Learning, to the Gestaltist, is cognitive phenomenon. The learners “comes to see” the solution after pondering a problem. The learner thinks about all of the ingredients necessary to solve a problem and put them together (cognitively) first one way and then another until the problem is solved. When the solution comes, it comes suddenly; that is, the learner gains an insight into the solution of a problem.

The problem can exist only in two states: solved and unsolved. There is no state of partial solution in between. So, either solution is reached or it is not; learning to Gestaltists was discontinous.

2) Learning Processes: Insight

The trial and error learning is cognitive rather than behavioral. They said that the learners run through a number of hypothesis concerning an effective way to solve a problem. The animal thinks about different possible solutions until it hits on one that works, and then it acts on that solution behaviorally. When the correct strategy is discovered,, insight occurred. The Gestaltists thought that, one must be exposed to all elements of the problem, otherwise its behavior will seem to be blink and groping.

The Characteristics of Insightful Learning:

(a)The transition from presolution to solution is hidden and complete.

(b)Performance based on a solution gained by insight is usually smooth and free of errors.

(c)A solution to a problem gained by insight is retained for a considerable length of time.

(d)A principle gained by insight is easily applied to other problems.

3) Learning Outcomes: Gestalt

configuration or pattern.

1.2 Bruner’s Learning Theory

Bruner is a cognitive psychologist who is highly interested in learning process. He has been acknowledged as a major supplement of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. He tried to extend the scope of the existing theory of cognitive development by creating his “Three Modes of Representation” and pointing out the close relationship between cognitive development and theory of instruction.

Main ideas:

Bruner’s ideas begin with his assumptions about human perception and information processing. In Bruner’s view, knowledge is organized into categories that simplify the task of processing and retaining information by allowing us to interpret the new with reference to the familiar. We can recognize instances as examples of more general categories of knowledge or events.

1) Three Modes of Representation:

a) Enactive mode (actions): learners acquire knowledge by action, past events and patterned motor response.

b) Iconic mode (pictures): learners perceive outside with images by using visual and other sensory organizations.

c) Symbolic mode (words and numbers):learners understand knowledge by language and reason, moreover they start trying to solve problems by thinking creatively.

2) Discovery Learning:

Bruner believes that much of the learning that is most meaningful to learners is developed through discoveries that occur during exploration motivated by curiosity.

He advocates instructional methods that encourage student learn by discovery. Opportunities to manipulate objects actively and transform them through direct action are valuable for inducing curiosity, as are activities that encourage students to search, explore, analyze, or otherwise process input rather than merely respond to it. In theory, such opportunities not only will increase students' knowledge about the topic at hand but also will help them develop generalized learning-to-learn strategies useful for discovering knowledge in other situations.

3) The Spiral Curriculum:

Bruner is famous for his statement that any subject can be taught in some intellectually honest way to any learner. This was not a claim that anyone can learn anything; note the qualifier "in some intellectually honest way." In applying this idea, he recommended the spiral curriculum---instead of sequencing(先后顺序） objectives so that learners move through successive steps of increasing difficulty or complexity, learners are brought back to given topics periodically but encouraged to address them at different levels of knowledge representation and analysis.

1.3 Ausubel’s Learning Theory

Main ideas:

His theory is concerned with how individuals learn meaningful material from verbal/textual presentations in a school setting. learning is based upon the kinds of superordinate, representational, and combinatorial processes that occur during the reception of information.

A primary process in learning is subsumption in which new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure on a substantive, non-verbatim basis. Cognitive structures represent the residue（残余，剩余物） of all learning experiences; forgetting occurs because certain details get integrated and lose their individual identity.

1) Rote and Meaningful Learning

Rote Learning: memorize something without relating it to prior experience or memorize just by mere repetition. (the memorization of facts or associations).

Meaningful Learning: attempts to create some connection to something that they already know, or learn with understanding. It is not arbitrary.

Materials learned that have relation to experiences or memories that are firm in the person’s memory are more likely to be retained. Whereas, rotely learned materials are discrete（不连续的，离散的） and isolated entities which have not been related to established concepts…and may soon be forgotten (Ausubel, 1962) .

2) Reception and Discovery Learning

Discovery Learning：learning by individual or group exploration. Real knowledge would be obtained through it.

Reception Learning: learning through expository, or subsumption.

3) Learning Processes: Subsumption

Subsumption is such a process in which new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structures.

Ausubel started with the notion that knowledge is organized into hierarchical structures in which subordinate concepts are not only related to one another but subsumed under higher-level superordinate concepts. Even if we gradually forget details, we tend to remember key ideas associated with a particular cognitive structure and to retain the structure itself.

4）Learning Outcomes: Cognitive Structure

A. Cognitive structure refers to what one has already known and their organizations.

B. Variables of cognitive structure:

a) The availability of ideas:

b) The discrimination of ideas:

c) The stability and clearness of ideas:

d) The ideas in one’s cognitive structure act as anchoring points which are cognitive bridges between what one has known and new information.

1.4 Information -Processing Theory

One of the major issues in cognitive theory is the information-processing theory , which proposes that information is processed and stored in 3 stages.

a) Sensory Memory Store

In the cognitive model, the learning process begins when an external stimulus including a variety of sources of information (light, sound, smell, heat, cold, etc) activates a sensory register.

b) Working Memory Store

c) Short-Term Memory

Short term memory is a storage system that can hold a limited amount of information for 15-30 seconds initially.

d) Long-Term Memory

Long-term memory is that part of our memory system where we keep information for long periods of time.

2. Similarities between Different Cognitive Learning Theories:

There are some universal ideas that those cognitive learning theories are all agree with, that is the learning process does not just to repeat the s-r response but to initially form a new Gestalts or cognitve structure.

From Bruner and Ausubel’s theory we can see there are some similarities: first, they both did researches of learning problem from the perspective of cognition. Secondly, the two theories both emphasize the cognitive structure in learning and consider the cognitive structure is hierachical. Thirdly, the two theories both emphasize that learning is an active process and attach great importance to the function of intrinsic motivation in learning. Fourthly, the two theories both did researches on human being’s learning directly.

Besises, those theories advocate the cognitive learning way thorough two main routes: one is used by gestalt theory that is to observe the phenomenon and meet the problem then find out solutions. Bruner and Ausubel are all use the same researching method as gestalt theory to develop their own theory. Another way is to use the method of psychological experiment, the representative of this route is Tolman’s theory.

3. Differences between Different Cognitive Learning Theories:

Although those theories all explore the learning method from the perspective of cognition, they have their distinct opinions and findings too.

For example, Gestalt Theory is the first one to criticize the molecular approaches of S-R behaviorism. The idea of organizational processes have had enormous impact on the fields of learning, perception, and psychotherapy, and they continue to influence contemporary cognitive science. By drawing attention to the satisfaction that comes from discovery or from solving problems, Gestalt psy. turned our attention from extrinsic to intrinsic reinforcement.

Although Gestalt psy. did offer important challenges to behaviorism, it never attained mainstream status in learning theory. On the basis of Gestalt Theory, Bruner proposed his further opinions: his famous statement is that any subject can be taught in some intellectually honest way to any learner. In applying this idea, he recommended the spiral curriculum---instead of sequencing(先后顺序） objectives so that learners move through successive steps of increasing difficulty or complexity, learners are brought back to given topics periodically but encouraged to address them at different levels of knowledge representation and analysis.

Besides, although Bruner and Ausubel almost share the same way in research, there are also some differences between their theories: first, the details of cognitive structure are different. Bruner calls it “representation” but Ausubel calls it the content and organization of sense. Second, Bruner emphasize on basic structure of subject and abstract general principles from superordinate learning, but Ausubel emphasize to teach from subordinate learning. At last, Bruner advocates receipt learning and expounds the process and effects of discovery learning, but Ausubel emphasizes receipt learning and consider learning mainly as significant learning.

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