The usage of the Present Continuous Tense can be used to express an action that is pre-planned or prearranged. It is always used together with an adverbial expressing future time.(表示将来的时间状语)
But please note that, not all verbs can be used in the “-ing” form to express future actions. Verbs can be used in the “-ing” form to express future actions: go, arrive, come, leave, start, stay, return, play, do, have, work, wear, spend, see, meet, travel, fly, drive, reach, see off, etc.
After class we are playing football on the playground.
Ⅱ.Direct Speech and indirect Speech 直接引语&间接引语
Direct/Quoted speech is saying exactly what someone has said. It appears within quotation marks ("...") and should be word for word.
Direct speech repeats, or quotes, the exact words spoken. When we use direct speech in writing, we put the words spoken between inverted commas ("___") and there is no change in these words. We may be reporting something that's being said NOW, or telling someone later about a previous conversation
Indirect/Reported speech is enclosing what the person said. It doesn't use quotation marks and doesn't have to be word for word.
Indirect speech is usually used to talk about the past. When we use indirect speech, we don’t use inverted comas. We should change the tense of the words spoken. We use reporting verbs for example say, ask, and we may use the word that to introduce the reported words.
Example
Hopes, Intentions, Promises
When we report an intention, hope or promise, we use an appropriate reporting verb followed by a that-clause or a to-infinitive:
Direct Speech | Indirect Speech |
He said, "I'll pay you the money tomorrow." | He promised to pay me the money the next day. He promised that he would pay me the money the next day. |
Other verbs used in this pattern include: hope, propose, threaten, guarantee, and swear.
Orders （祈使句 imperative sentence）
When we want to report an order, we can use a verb like tell with to-clause:
Direct Speech | Indirect Speech |
The doctor said to me, "Stop smoking!" | The doctor told me to stop smoking. |
"Get out of the car!" said the policeman. | The policeman ordered him to get out of the car. |
Other verbs used are: command, order, warn, ask, invite, advise, beg, teach, and forbid. <
Requests
When we want to report a request, we can use a verb like ask with for-clause:
Direct Speech | Indirect Speech |
The child asked, "Can I have a car?" | The child asked for a car. |
Suggestions
Suggestions are usually reported with a that-clause. That and should are optional in these clauses.
Direct Speech | Indirect Speech |
“I think you should go to the dentist", said my mother | My mother suggested that I should go to the dentist. |
Other verbs used are: insist, recommend, demand, request, and propose. Note: Suggest can also be followed by a gerund: I suggested postponing the visit to the dentist.
Questions
-Question words are reported by using ask (or another verb like ask) + question word+ clause. 特殊疑问句Special Questions <
Direct Speech | Indirect Speech |
She asked me, “Where do you live?” | She asked me where I lived. |
He asked me, "What is your name?" | He asked me what my name was. |
Yes/No questions: This type of question is reported by using ask + if / whether +clause:
一般疑问句GeneralQuestions
Direct Speech | Indirect Speech |
He asked me, "Are you Eastern or Western?" | He asked me whether I was Eastern or Western. |
Rules
There are rules in converting direct to indirect speech. The tense usually has change because when we use reported speech, we are usually talking about a time in the past (obviously the person who spoke originally spoke in the past).
Tense Change
As a rule when we report something someone has said you go back a tense (the tense on the left changes to the tense on the right)
Direct Speech | Indirect Speech |
Present Simple He said, “It is hot.” | Past Simple He said it was hot. |
Present Continuous She said, “I’m eating an apple.” | Past Continuous She said she was eating an apple. |
Present Perfect Simple She said, "I've taught English since 1999." | Past Perfect Simple She said she had taught English since 1999. |
Present Perfect Continuous He said, "I've been teaching English for two years." | Past Perfect Continuous She said she had been teaching English for two years. |
Past Simple She said, "I taught English." | Past Perfect She said she had taught English. |
Past Continuous She said, "I was teaching earlier." | Past Perfect Continuous She said she had been teaching earlier |
Past Perfect She said, "The lesson had already started when he arrived." | Past Perfect (No Change) She said the lesson had already started when he arrived. |
Past Perfect Continuous She said, "I had already been teaching for ten minutes." | Past Perfect Continuous (No Change) - She said she'd already been teaching for ten minutes. |
Note:
- We can use the Present Tense in indirect speech if we want to say that something is still true.
Direct Speech | Indirect Speech |
Present Simple He said, “My name is James.” | Past Simple He said his name was James. or Present Simple He said his name is James. |
Modal Change
Modal verb forms also sometimes change
Direct Speech | Indirect Speech |
Will She said, “I will teach English.” | Would She said she would teach English. |
Can She said, "I can teach English online." | Could She said she could teach English. |
Must She said, "I must teach English." | Had to She said she had to teach English. |
Shall She said, "What shall we learn today?" | Should She asked what we should learn today. |
May She said, "May I open the window?" | Might She asked if she might open the window. |
If it use modal, such as: could, would, should, might and ought to in direct speech, then we don’t need to change it.
Time Change
If direct speech sentence contains an expression of time, we must change it to fit in with the time.
Time in Direct Speech | Time in Indirect Speech |
this (morning/noon/evening) | that (morning/noon/evening) |
today | yesterday |
tomorrow | the next/following day |
yesterday | the day before |
the day after tomorrow | in two days |
the day before yesterday | two days before/earlier |
these (days) | those (days) |
now | then |
(a week/ a month/ a year) ago | (a week/ a month/ a year) before |
last weekend | the weekend before last/ the previous weekend |
here | there |
next (week/month/year) | the following (week/month/year) |
Ⅲ.The Attributive Clause 定语从句
Definitions:
1. The attributive clause: A clause which is functioned as an attributive to modify a noun or a pronoun, and sometimes a sentence.
2. Antecedent (先行词)：The word or phrase which is modified by the attributive clause.
3. Relatives (关系词): It plays some relative functions between the antecedent and the clause.
It both introduces the attributive clause and acts as a certain constituent in the clause in place of the antecedent.
The man who wrote this book is a well-known scientist.
先行词 关系词 定语从句
Most of attributive clauses are introduced by relatives。
Types of relatives: Relative pronouns: that, which, who, whom, whose
Relative adverbs: when, where, why, how
Where should we put the attributive clause?
The attributive clause usually follows the antecedent immediately.
Usage:
1. Attributive clauses introduced by relative pronouns. 由关系代词引导的定语从句
Relative pronouns can be functioned as subjects, objects or attributives.关系代词可充当主语、宾语或状语。
Eg. Where is the girl who (that) was injured in the accident?
The man whom (that) you saw just now is our manager.
1) that
“that” can be used to replace the antecedent being predicatives in the clause
Eg. She is no longer the girl that she was in her childhood.
This is not an easy question that you think it to be.
The relative “that” sometimes can be omitted. Under what circumstances? In oral or informal occasions and used as an object (宾语).
Eg. Have you found the book (that) you want?
When the relatives are prepositional objects, we can not use “that”. Instead, we have to use “whom” or “which”. And they cannot be omitted.
Eg. The book from which (not“that”) I got a lot of useful information was written by a famous physicist.
But when we put the preposition at the end of the sentence and its object in front, we can still use “that” relative. “That” also can be omitted.
Eg. The book (that/which) I got a lot of useful information from was written by a famous physicist.
“That” must be used as a relative when ① the antecedents are those indefinite pronouns such as “all, everything, something, nothing…”② modified by “first, last, only, few, much, some, any, no” and the superlative degrees of adjectives.
Eg. I am interested in all that you have told me. 你告诉我的一切我都感兴趣。
He asked for the best book that was on the subject. 他要有关这个内容的最好的书。
When we have two antecedents and one for people and the other for things, we use “that” to introduce the attributive clause.
Eg. We were deeply impressed by the teachers and schools ______ we had visited there.
2) prep. + which: they function together in a sentence.
Eg. The speed at which the machine operates is indicated on the meter.
This is a place to which people will adapt very easily.
The relatives here do not play any functions alone in the clauses. Instead, it goes with its prepositions to play adverbials or other functions in the clause.
2. Attributives clauses introduced by relative adverbs
The relative adverbs will be functioned as time, place or cause adverbials in the clause.
When=at, on, in , during which
Where= in, at which
Why= for which
How= in which
Eg. He came at a time when (at which) we were badly in need of help.
他来得正是时候。（我们正急需帮助的那一刻，他来了）
The school where (in which) I work is not far from here. 我工作的那所学校离这儿不远。
He didn’t give the reason why (for which) he was absent yesterday. 他没有给出理由昨天为什么不来。
We admired him for the way (in which) he faced his difficulties. 我们很欣赏他面对困难的方式。
3. What is the difference between the defining and non-defining attributive clause?
Defining and non-defining attributive clauses are differentiated from the relations with the antecedents.
Eg. He has a daughter who works in a hospital.
He has a daughter, who works in a hospital.
4. “as” in attributive clause
“as” can be used to introduce an attributive clause. It mainly exists in “such…as” or “the same …as” structures and represents the antecedents being nouns for people or things. In “the same…as” structure, “that” can also be used to replace “as”.
Eg. Let’s discuss only such questions as concern us. (subject)让我们讨论一下只跟我们有关的这些问题
No one will believe such stories as he told. (object) 没有人相信如他讲的这种故事。
I have never seen such kind of people as they are. (predictative)我从未见过象他们那样的那种人。
▲“as” introducing non-defining attributive clauses
We can use “as” to introduce an non-defining attributive clause to further clarify the meaning of the previous sentence.
The clause can be put at the beginning, or middle, or at the end of a sentence.
Eg. He is an Englishman, as I know from his accent.
As was usual with him, he went out for a walk after dinner.
5. The choice of relative pronouns and relative adverbs
Which relatives to use has nothing to do with the functions of antecedents in the main clause, but has everything to do with the functions for relatives to play in the sub clause.
See whether the antecedents are for people, for things, for time, for places or causes.
See whether they introduce defining or non-defining relative clauses.
Eg. This is the place where I spent my childhood.
This the place which I visited last summer.
The reason which he gave was unacceptable.
The reason why he did that was unacceptable.
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