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文献出处：Saviţkaia I. THE ART OF ENGRAVING IN MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA AND ARTISTIC EDUCATION[J]. Review of Artistic Education, 2011 (1-2: 37-45.

THE ART OF ENGRAVING IN MEDIEVAL MOLDAVIA AND ARTISTIC EDUCATION
Savitkaia, Iarîna

Abstract
The moldavian engraving art had a special influence over the developing of printing and other domains of plastique arts. Known through the illustrations at Varlaam's "Cazania" (1643, the wood engraving gets new dimentions in creation of M Strilbitchi (sec.XVIII and reaches the acme of its development in the XIX century due to the masters from Neamt MonasterySimion, Ghervasie, Teodosie, Iosif and Damian. Their illustrations made in xylographie (woodcut technique influenced printing area and stimulated the occurrence of a new domain in medieval arts like iconengraving, which influenced the style and decoration of painted icons. Keywords: art of engraving, medieval art, artistic education
One of the areas, studied and least known of national art history, covers the development of engraving in medieval Moldavia. Although during the XXth century many publications devoted to the old book illustrating occurred most researchers focused on the text and less - on the engravings, which only decorated the texts. Lack of information, regarding developments in this specific gender of art, causes gaps in the contemporary didactic process when the art of engraving is seen as a phenomenon barely occurred without no lasting indigenous roots.
If the clip art has received particular interest, known due to the scientists' work N.Iorga (1, G. Popescu - Vâlcea (2, G. Çtrempel (3 , M. Topmescu (4 etc, then contributions to knowledge of engraving, which has stimulated the emergence of printing, gets more refractory attention than priority. The same issues are reflected in the research monograph D. Simionescu §i Gh. Bulutä "Pagini din istoria cärtii româneçti" ( Bucure§ti,1981 and many others(5.
In particular this is a crucial work done by I. Bianu, N. Hodos, D. Simionescu (6, which includes also most representative images in addition to text books describing the miniature book or printed book. Thus, in part,
cited sources are related to the priorities of history of literature, writing and printing developments, to the paleography, engraving that once graced the book and artistic value, what is being the last, somewhat at a lower plane.
The book by Gh Racoveanu "Wood engravings at the Neamt Monastery", the work of the XIXth century may be regarded as a rare discovery from the engravers of Neamt Monastery. The importance and rarity of this paper are mentioned in the title sheet, stating that the monograph was published by the Royal Foundation for Literature and Art in number of 26 copies, consists of 44 pages, 160 original prints of which only 14 were previously presented in the album of A. Maniu "La gravure sur bois en Roumanie", published in 1929 in Bucharest (7.Among the recent research publications can be nominated as available that of C. Tatai-Baltä(8, where authors remember the first wood engravings printed in "Cazania lui Varlaam" Iasi in 1643.
Same process went within the present Republic of Moldova, much later than in Romania. In the monographs ordered and printed in Moscow in the 70s of the XXth century, A. Zevin and K. Rodnin introduced a dedicated compartment for medieval engraving of book, inserting and some illustrations, which have been the only source to which we could refer until recently (9. A more comprehensive approach, with references to various studies on xylography appears in more recent publications of T. Stavila (10. Usually, however, as in Romania, the main attention of researchers from Moldova focused on literary or paleographical aspects of the manuscript -book or printed book in the XIVXIX century. Notorious name in this field is the work of V. Pelin (11 and V. Chiriac (12. Summing up all above we can say that the emergence of xylography stimulated the appearance of printing, which in medieval Moldavia passed a specific way. It is known that the emergence of first printing press due to joint efforts made by ruler Vasile Lupu and Kievan Metropolitan Peter Movila, through which, besides the Three Hierarchs Monastery in Iasi is established first printing (1642. With the printing presses, the Metropolitan received some wood engravings, made by the Ukrainian monk Ilya and considered among the most successful editions of prints in Kiev and Lvov between 1639-1670 (13. The engravings of this master illustrated the first book printed in Iasi in 1643 - "Cazania"; or "Romanian book of teaching" written by Metropolitan Varlaam. Ukrainian master of engravings signed by Ilya holds a quarter of a page and illustrates the main text of Cazania. But the specificity of these designs is not established by iconographie originality of evangelical motives, but it is made by clumsy and naive expressiveness of the treatment, his images are close to works of folk art. This is
eloquently illustrated by scenes "Birth of Christ", "Candlemas", including the engraving of "St. Paraschiva" (14. Engravings for the frontispiece bears the same stylistic features of text initials, using models from manuscripts or image printing "white on black" and vice versa (15.
During the XVIIIth and XIXth centuries Varlaam's book was reprinted 12 times, each edition bears significant deviations in terms of illustrating the Cazania. Engravings from books printed in the Three Hierarchs Monastery had the mark of Ukrainian influence, with dark background and at the same time, they had a traditional character, particular to his miniature of Crimea Anastasius. Geometric ornament was replaced with vegetable, one stylized forms became more pronounced.
It was frequently used material exchange between printing and the use of stereotypes of older wood. For example, illustrations for "Mass" in 1672 and "The Apostle" from 1756, with signatures of Sandu and Gregory printers have the same clichés and some support. Similar are ornaments crafted by M. Stribitchi for "Prävälioara" printed in Iasi in 1784, which were repeated in several books. "Penticostarion" printed in Bucharest in 1800 by Thomovici Stanciul and "Penticostarion" printed in Blaj ini 808 and signed by Peter Râmniceanul contain the same images that shows that both had an older original as a model.
A special fineness of medieval Moldavian art of xylography -is characterized for engravers printers Gregory and Sandu, who in 1745 printed in Radauti Ceaslovul. Two of the engravings accompanying the text - "Annunciation" and "Jesus Christ blessed" with the signatures of these engravers reflect an elegant compositional structure and unique mastery of xylography technique. Title page inscribed with medallion in the center of the engraving depicting Christ at the Last Supper, four other comers with small medallions with images of Iacov, Vasilie the Big, loan Gurä de Aur and Gregory, designed on a dark background and filled with floral ornaments. Engraving shows a special master of put in page design and fineness, of drawings in the application of shades on dark and light background (16.
Book engraving of the eighteenth century in the second half of the century was marked by the most representative personality's engraver of the time - Michael Strilbitchi, which was established in Iasi in 1750. Since 1756, when the engraver made up the first work till 1807 / 08, time of death, he became known as the author of about 200 engravings, including title sheets, frontispieces, biblical scenes and images of evangelists, and various vignettes and initial (17 .

During his stay in Iasi, in 1778 and until 1792, M. Strilbitchi excellent engravings illustrated with "Prävälioara" (1784, "Calendar or Saints "(1785, "Octoechos" (1786 and 1789, "Psalter" 1792, "The Apostle" in 1791.With the transfer of printing to Dubasari in 1792, M. Strilbitchi, apart from religious books, printed ones with more secular orientation, such as textbooks, educational books and vocabularies, popular books, but the illustrations were missing. Anyway their names - "Bucvar" (1794, "Alexandria" (1793, "Poems by loan Cantacuzino" (1793-1796 are not an exception in publishing activity of the engraver.
After 1796 Mikhail Strilbitchi transfer typography (printing from Dubasari to Movilau, which will run until 1800 one (18. Late eighteenth century knew besides the book engraving and the etching on paper, spread out as icons, many of them are products of the engravers of the Neamt Monastery. Engravers School from that time on has become the authority not only because of M. Strilbitchi but artisans Simeon, Ghervasie, Joseph, Theodosius and Damian, who worked not only here but in other places.
The most gifted of them, Ghervasie, decorated with engravings in 1818 "New Testament", one of the most beautiful Romanian illustrated books. Ghervasie also worked for the first illustrated "Gospel", extraordinary monumental printing presses engraving worked out in Neamt in 1821 ( 19.Our attention for the publication of Gh Racoveanu is dictated by the fact that it is the only source of identification of xylography in medieval Moldavian ambience
During working on monograph author found in Neamt monastery 900 blocks of wood, of which "... almost 500 were icons, borders, frontispieces, vignette, ornaments, and over 400 titles set, and handwritten text and signature" (20 . Existence xylography-icon to "... late eighteenth century and most of the nineteenth century ... it is ... known about isolated engraving, of large scale, which has spread as an icon in many thousands of copies, colored (by hand, besides contours lines, or uncolored ..." (21. Taking into consideration the research carried out in the convent, G. Racoveanu notes that "... since the second decade of the XIXth century, engravers of Neamt Monastery dominated, with authority, this art field in Romania ..." (22.
As long as the printing press enabled in the Neamt monastery, between 1808 and 1874, when the photo appeared, there have been, judging by the dimensions given, made some examples of icons and not 500 as previously mentioned Racoveanu Gh. Large sizes ranging between 298 and 160 x 372 mm x 328 mm. and unlikely, that could be used for printing illustrations in books, although this time can not be excluded.

First published woodcut-icon into the monastery is "Assumption" (1821, 160 x 238, Ghervasie, followed by wood engravings of Theodosius the monk, disciple of Simeon and Ghervasie. "Virgin" is engraved on wood in 1827 followed by "Ascension" (1831 and "Saints Constantine and Helena" (1852. He is still the one who cut in wood a version of that subject in 1855, with the same dimensions, and in 1856 - a "Deisis". A single work piece of great scale is "Iconostasis" originally performed in Neamt in early times, in 1821, which repeat exactly the scenes of traditional Orthodox iconostasis, signed by Ghervasie (23.
Another author of xylography-icon, was Damian Hieromonk , activating at Neamt between 1857-1860. His icons representing "Virgin", "... reveals a purely decorative concern, with obvious notes of naivety" was made in 1857 and 1858 (24. Perhaps as Icons could be used and book prints, images of which were related to typical motives for icons such as: "Mother of God with Child"(Iereu Simeon, 1829, "Cathedral of Holy Angels "(Ghervasie , 1833, "Holy Martyr Barbara (Teodosii, 1833 or " Deisis" by the same author, executed in 1850. (本文献归百度文库所有，完整文献请见百度文库
Talking about interference style between wood engraving and icon, it would be too easy to identify them as some imitation or copies who were transferred from one gender to another. With special features, which refer to various plastic processes, materials used and, finally, the ultimate goal of the distance of each works differently from one gender or another, yet we can not overlook the common and distinctive aspects which occurred pithy in the XIXth century religious art. References References
1. Iorga N.,Les arts mineurs en Romanie, vol.1-3, Bue.,1934-1936; Miniaturile româneçti, Bue., 1933 2. PopescuVâlcea G.,Miniatura româneascâ, Bue., 1981
3. Çtrempel G.,Copiai de manuscrise româneçti pînà la 1800, vol. 1,Bue.,1956; Catalogul manuscriselor româneçti, vol. 1-3, Bue., 1978-1987
4. Tomescu M., Istoria cärtii româneçti de la începuturi pânâ la 1918, Bue., 1968
5. A se vedea: Andreescu A. Arta cärtii (Cartea româneascâ în secolele XVI-XVII, Bue., 1997; Radu M., Pepanovici A., O istorie a tiparului §i a tipäriturlor, ed. II, Braçov, 2004

6. Bianu I., Hodoç N., Simionescu D., Bibliografie româneascâ veche. 15081830,Vol. 1-4, Bue., 1903 - 1944 7. Racoveanu Gh., Gravura în lemn la mänästirea Neamtul, Bue., 1940
8. Tatai-Baltä C., Incursiune în xilogravura româneascâ .Secolul XVI-XIX,în" Apulum," 1979 9. Zevin A., Rodnin K., Izobrazitelinoe iskusstvo Moldavii, Chiçinâu, 1965, p.p. 100-130
10. Stavilä T., Gravura în lemn §i icoana din Basarabia. Interference stilistice §i iconografice. în: Arta, seria Arte vizuale, Chiçinâu, 2005, p. 26-40
11. Pelin V.,Catalogul general al manuscriselor moldoveneçti pästrate în URSS, Chiçinâu, 1989 12. (ProQuest: ... denotes non-USASCII text omitted., 1977
13. Despre gravorul ucrainean aminteçte pentru întâia oarä cercetätorul C. TâtaiBaltâ. A lucrat la Lvov eu cunoscutul tipograf Ivan Fiodorov §i mai apoi la Kiev, fiind unul dintre cei mai de seamâ maestri ucraineni ai secolului XVII. In sursele ucrainene Ilia este amintit ca gravor la tipografía Lavrei Kievo-Pecersk în anii 40-50 ai secolului XVII, unde sub îndrumarea mitropolitului Petru Movilä a exécutât gravuri pentru Biblia Piscator, reuçind sä realizeze 139 de gravuri pe lemn. Sursele gravurilor lui Ilia tipärite în Cazania lui Varlaam în 1643, râmân deocamdatä, neidentificate.
14. Bianu I., Hodoç N., Simionescu D., Op.cit.,. 1508-1716,Vol.l, Bue.,1903. în lipsa paginilor se indicä numärul ilustraCiei: nr. 59, Naçterea lui Hristos; nr. 60, Intâmpinarea Domnului, inclusiv §i gravura "Preacuvioasei Paraschiva".
15. Idem, ilustraCiile nr.73, 40,49
16. Bianu I., HodoçN., Simionescu D., Op. cit., 1716-1808,Vol. 2, Bue., 1910, p.56
17. KupHax B., KapTea MormoBeñ. CeKOJiyji XIV - BiHHenyryji ceKOJiyjiyñ XX, Chiçinâu, 1992, p. 14 18. Mihail StrilbiCchi (n. 1703, Mirgorod, regiunea Poltava - d.1805 / 1807 tipograf §i gravor. A absolvit Academia Teologicä din Kiev. La Iaçi activeazä din 1750, iar cu anul 1756 se dateazä prima gravurä. între anii 1792-1796 înfiinCeazâ o Tipografie la Dubäsari. Din 1776 se stabilere la Moviläu, iar dupä 1800 se reîntoarce la Ia§i. Vezi §i Enciclopedia de Literatura §i Arte, Chiçinâu, 1986. V. 2, p.262.
19. Bianu L, Hodoç N., Simionescu D., Op.cit.,. 1809-1830,V.3, fascicula IV, Bue.,1936, p.246 20. Racoveanu Gh., Op. cit., p.7

21. Idem, p. 13 22. Ibidem, p. 18 23. Ibidem, p. 17 24. Idem, p. 18


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