第一章 希腊罗马文化
希腊罗马文化可以说是欧洲文明的起源，所以这一章节应该是比较重要的章节。我们先看希腊的发展。
希腊文明分为几个时期，她形成于公元前800－500年，经历了古典时代（也就是公元前500到公元前336年）和希腊化时代（也就是公元前336年到公元前31年）。希腊文明达到顶峰是公元前5世纪。公元前146年，希腊被罗马攻克。希腊文明也就被罗马文明所取代。
这段历史的重要大事有：
1、公元前12世纪，随着特洛伊人的入侵，希腊堕入“黑暗时代”。荷马史诗描述的正是希腊人与特洛伊人之间的战争（《以利亚特》和《奥得赛》）。这里要注意的是，荷马史诗描述的时代并非荷马生活的时代。荷马生活在公元前700年。
2、公元前6世纪，希腊世界开始有了全面改变，为后来的古典时代打开了通途。其中两个重要的城邦国家是雅典和斯巴达。雅典发展起一个完全不同类型的社会，公元前594年，梭伦成为雅典的首席执行官，他的贡献在于，在组织上为以后建立著名的雅典民主奠定了基础。雅典之所以在当时拥有卓越的地位，是因为它在打败庞大的波斯帝国这场重大战争中起了最主要的作用。历史之父希罗多德在他的历史书中进行了详尽的描述。
3、由于雅典的不断扩张引起了斯巴达的恐慌，因而在公元前431年爆发了伯罗奔尼撒战争。战争最终以雅典的失败而告终。修昔底得这位历史上最伟大的历史学家在其作品中，详尽描写了这一战争。
4、伯罗奔尼撒战争后，斯巴达专横跋扈，底比斯和雅典为求相互保护而结成新的联盟。公元前371年，马其顿国王腓力二世打败了底比斯和雅典联军，他的闻名世界的儿子亚历山大大帝统治了希腊。至此，古典时代结束，希腊化时代即将开始。
古典时代的希腊造就了一批哲学家和剧作家。哲学家主要以苏格拉底、柏拉图和亚里士多德为代表。苏格拉底提出自由辩论的重要性。柏拉图的目标是要实现一个既能维持贵族特权，又可为贫苦阶级接受的社会，并构件了唯心主义的根基。亚力士多德寻求自然界和人类社会各个方面的秩序。剧作家有埃斯库罗斯、阿里斯托芬、索福克勒斯。这一时期希腊也造就了像阿基米德和欧几里得这样的数学家，以及像希罗多德和修昔底得这样伟大的历史学家。
希腊的艺术和建筑在神庙上得到最高体现。著名的雅典卫城的圣地帕台侬神庙就是卫雅典娜女神建造的。
接下来我们从希腊文明走向罗马文明。
希腊化时代与罗马时代前期相互交融，最终过渡到罗马时代。罗马时代经历了早期共和国（公元前509－公元前264年）、后期共和国（公元前265－公元前27年）、早期帝国（公元前27年－公元284年）和后期帝国（284－476年）。公元前500年，罗马开始了独立城邦的生涯。经过三次布诺战争，罗马渐渐地满足了它的征服欲。战争中尤里乌斯 恺撒声名鹊起。公元前27年，元老院授予屋大维“奥古斯都”和“大元帅”的尊称，罗马早期帝国形成。在此后的两个世纪中，罗马帝国的疆域达到最大范围，其文化处于极盛时期。这段历史时期被成为“罗马和平”。但罗马的伟大也就仅至于此。罗马的伟大时代随着公元180年马可 奥勒留的去世而告终。公元395年，罗马帝国彻底分裂为东罗马帝国和西罗马帝国。公元476年，西罗马帝国陷落。公元1453年，东罗马帝国被土耳其人占领。
说到罗马的文化，它基本源于希腊，但罗马人在思想意识方面也有重大贡献。
罗马人对欧洲文化所作的最重要的贡献是它所创立的罗马法律。
在政治文化方面，罗马出现了以下比较重要的人物：
1. 恺撒 他是古代罗马政治家、军事家。他在文学方面也颇有建树。传世之作有《高卢战记》、《内战记》。对于他，我们要记住一句名言：也就是 “I came, I saw, I conquered.”
2.西赛罗 他是古罗马政治家、哲学家和最重要的演说家。主要成就在演说词和书信。
3. 卢克来修 他是罗马共和国末期主要诗人之一，提倡唯物论、无神论和原子论。作品有哲理诗《物性论》。
4. 维吉尔 他是罗马文学中最重要的作家。代表作品是《阿尼德》。
在建筑、艺术方面，罗马人也做出了突出的贡献。如：圆形大剧场和建于公元前27年的罗马万神殿以及女狼雕塑等。
以上是对希腊罗马文化的综述，下面我们来一起看两个问答题。
1. How did the Ancient Greek philosophy develop?希腊哲学是如何发展起来的？
回答这个问题，我们要掌握1. 三个哲学奠基人及其理论：毕达哥拉斯，赫拉克里特，德谟克里特。2. 三位思想家及其理论：苏格拉底，柏拉图和亚力士多德。3. 其它思辩流派，如诡辩派、犬儒派等。这样才能完善这个问题。具体的答案我们可在练习册上找到。
2. What’s the difference between Plato and Aristotle in terms of their philosophical ideas (system)？柏拉图和亚力士多德的哲学体系有何区别？
回答这个问题，首先要阐述柏拉图的哲学体系包含什么，亚力士多德的哲学体系包含什么。然后再进行对比。他们两个最主要的一个区别在于亚力士多德强调理论联系实际，而柏拉图强调万物依赖主观思维。这是必须提到的一点。具体的答案见练习册。
以上是对第一章希腊罗马文化的讲解。
刚才我们谈到要研究欧洲发展的历史，除了要研究希腊和罗马文化历史这条线索之外，精神宗教形成线索，即犹太教和基督教历史也很重要。
在第二章中我们要看一下基督教和圣经的发展及其内容。
第二章 基督教和圣经
这一章的重点是：犹太教与基督教的关系，基督教的教义核心，旧约的摩西五经，十诫，列王记，罗马帝国衰亡的原因，基督教与罗马帝国政府的关系的发展，基督教教士对维系和发展西方文明的贡献，圣经对西方的影响或贡献。
在学习这一章中，大家应努力将2－4章关于基督教的知识连成线，从而理解和记忆欧洲文化的另一个重要源头的发展脉络――犹太教和基督教，彻底认清圣经在欧洲文化中的核心作用。
基督教是在西方最具影响力的宗教。犹太教是世界各地犹太人信仰的宗教。是基督教的前身。这一教派的经典《旧约》记载了犹太人的历史。犹太人以前叫Hebrews希伯莱人，在大约公元前3800前在中东一带沙漠流浪。约在公元前1300前，他们逐渐在伽南地区定居下来，并形成了小王国。
基督教与犹太教关系密切。它与犹太教同发源于巴勒斯坦。基督教的核心是耶稣基督，其教义是：一、耶稣基督是上帝的儿子，上帝派他到人间来，跟人类一起受苦受难，最终拯救人类。二、基督是上帝唯一的儿子，任何信仰基督的人最终得到永生。
耶稣基督生活在第一个罗马帝国。他教导人们热爱上帝、信仰上帝。由于他获得越来越多的人的爱戴，当时的统治者就收买了他十二个门徒中的犹大，在耶稣与他的弟子去往巴勒斯坦的路上，将他钉死在十字架上。由于耶稣的门徒圣保罗和圣彼得拒绝把罗马皇帝作为上帝来敬奉，而宣称只有真正的上帝才能受到崇拜，所以基督教一开始就被认为是一个具有反叛性的宗教受到包括罗马皇帝尼禄、多米提安在内的皇帝的迫害的宗教。尽管如此，基督教还是越来越受到人们的信奉，并开始从早期穷人信奉的宗教演变为各个阶层的人都能接受的宗教。成为一支显著的社会力量。统治者对它的态度也开始转变。公元305年，戴克里先放弃了摧毁基督教的企图。不久，君士坦丁一世由于相信上帝帮助他赢得战争而在313年发布“米兰赦令”宣布人人都有宗教信仰的自由，从此基督教取得了合法地位。392年，迪奥多西一世宣布基督教为罗马国教，而其它宗教不合法。至此，基督教从一个受压迫的对象转变为统治阶级的统治武器。
基督教的主要经典是《圣经》。《圣经》由《新约》和《旧约》两部分构成。在前面已经谈到《旧约》是希伯莱人的文献。《旧约》共39部，写了从1000B.C.---100A.D.的事情，最重要的前五本是《摩西五书》，包括《创世纪》, 《出埃及记》, 《利未记》, 《民数记》, 《申命记》。《新约》成于基督教兴起之后，共27卷，其中前四卷福音书《马太福音》、《马可福音》《路加福音》《约翰福音》内容包括了有关耶稣言行的传说、耶稣使徒的传说。
接下来我们看一下《圣经》的翻译：
现存的最早的《旧约》希腊版本被成为旧约圣经。传说是应埃及王之请，由72位犹太学者在72日之内译成。现存最早的《圣经》拉丁文全译本是瓦尔盖特译本，是公元383－405年由圣 杰罗姆所译，是罗马天主教认为唯一可信的拉丁语译本。其它英文译本及欧洲其它语种译本大都以瓦尔盖特译本为基础。当1500’s发明印刷术时，拉丁圣经是第一部被全文印刷的作品。
继拉丁文译本之后，出现了现代语言的译本。第一部英文全文译本是1382年由约翰 威克利夫在瓦尔盖特拉丁文译本基础上译成。之后，出现了英国宗教改革家丁道儿的英文译本。他的译本是直接根据希伯莱和希腊原文译成。后来出现的《大圣经》The Great Bible 就部分参照丁道儿的译本。1539年在亨利八世命令所有英国教堂中都必须供奉《大圣经》。但最重要的也是最具影响力的圣经译本是最初发表于1611年的官方版圣经或詹姆斯王圣经。 它的翻译是在詹姆斯国王的命令下由54为圣经学者翻译而成，语言简洁，使用高雅的安各鲁 萨克森语言。这一译本被认为是英语语言中最伟大的作品。圣经修订本The Revised Version 出现在1885，1901年出现了标准美语版本圣经修订本。1979年，新版詹姆斯王圣经出版。对圣经的翻译有重大意义，英语圣经和莎士比亚的作品被成为现代英语的两大源头。后世的文学深受圣经的影响。如：Miltion’s Paradise Lost (失乐园), Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress, Byron’s Cain, up to the contemporary (同时期的) Hemingway’s The Sun Also Rises, and Steinbeck’s East of Eden. They are not influenced without the effect of the Bible.
以上是对希腊罗马文化的综述，下面我们来一起看一个问答题。
1. How was Christianity spread to Europe and became the official religion? 基督教是如何传到欧洲并成为统治性宗教的？
其实这个问题我们在综述总已经谈到。只要搞清基督教发展的历史阶段，每一阶段的社会状况，它为什么会从被迫害变成成为统治阶级的工具，统治阶级又是如何一步步将它从摈弃、迫害变为合法、变为国教的就可以了。这其中的重要人物是戴克里先、君士坦丁一世、迪奥多西一世。具体的答案请参见练习册。
下面我们进行第三章，中世纪the Middle Ages。
第三章 中世纪 The Middle Ages
本章重点：封建土地制和分封制，天主教会的影响（包括教会组织，教会学术和哲学，教会艺术，教会影响），三种文化的融合，民族文学。
在学习这一章中，很多题目的内容相互交叠，互有异同，请反复研读，只需将骨干内容搞清楚，相似的题目的核心答案往往是一致的。
下面我们一起来看一下中世纪的内容。
中世纪开始于476年日耳曼人将西罗马帝国的灭亡。这一年也被认为是欧洲古代奴隶制社会历史的终结。从这时起，直到17世纪中叶英国资产阶级革命爆发，是欧洲历史上的中世纪。中世纪是欧洲封建制度形成、发展和衰亡的历史。
欧洲历史的中世纪大致可分为三个时期。公元5-11世纪为初期，是封建社会形成时期；公元12－15是中世纪的中期，也是它的全盛时期；公元16－17世纪是中世纪的末期，是封建社会衰落瓦解和资本主义兴起的时期。中世纪的最初几个世纪是在混战的状况中。在日耳曼人建立的王国中，以六世纪法兰克王国最强大。公元8世纪末和九世纪初，法兰克国王查理曼大帝建立了强大的帝国。查理曼国王在1800年被教皇加冕，授予“罗马皇帝”之称。查理曼大帝应该说是中世纪早期最重要的人物了。
从11世纪起，西方随着经济的迅速发展，国家君主国崛起、新的知识水平的出现、扩张主义盛行――首先是地方的十字军东侵，然后是向海外推进，在数世纪内导致全球性霸权。而东罗马帝国经过长久的挣扎之后，注定了1453年的灭亡。
中世纪的封建土地所有制feudalism是欧洲各地区的主要的政治制度。封建制度是一种政体，在这一政体中，那些拥有地产的人也拥有政权，因此，封建主和封臣之间的契约代替了国家权利。大多数时间里掌握国家政权的是那些封臣们而不是国王。这些强有力的封建领主（vassals）在把他们的封地分成更小的封地（fiefs），分给他们的追随者们。当时最基本的经济组织是封建庄园（manor），农奴依附在庄园领主的土地上，被迫无偿为他们劳动。
公元1054年，基督教教会分裂为罗马天主教（the Roman Catholic Church）和东正教（the Eastern Orthodox）。罗马天主教将拉丁语作为正式语言。中世纪时期，几乎所有欧洲人都信奉罗马天主教。因此，中世纪也被成为“信仰时代”（Age of Faith）。天主教会有严格的等级之分。教皇（Pope）享有绝对的权威，以下以此为大主教（Archbishop）、主教（bishop）、牧师（Priest）和天主教会现有成员，教会有严密的组织和纪律。隐修院制度产生于这一时期，并培养了大批的修道士，比如，将圣经全文译成英文的圣 杰罗姆以及于公元529年创立本尼狄克法则的圣 本尼狄克。基督教思想一个最重要的领袖人物是公元5世纪的奥古斯丁。他对基督教神学思想产生了深远的影响。《忏悔录》和《上帝之城》是他的两部不朽的著作。
基督教在欧洲封建社会的政治生活中起着十分重要的作用。原来在罗马帝国时期为奴隶主统治服务的基督教到了中世纪自然地变做封建主统治的重要工具，成为封建制度的精神支柱。基督教世界排斥异己，并且好战成性。其中当属十字军东侵（the Crusades）最为著名。尤其是对圣地巴勒斯坦几次入侵。虽然最后以失败告终，但却促进了东西方文化的交流，为君主政体的形成准备了条件。
在学术和科学方面，中世纪的欧洲知识为即将道来的西方新兴世界作一些铺垫。查理曼大帝（Charlemagne）和他的卡罗林复兴（Carolingian Renaissance），阿尔弗莱德大帝（Alfred the Great）和他的学术中心，还有意大利神学家阿奎那（St. Thomas Aquinas）的经验哲学（Scholasticism）和托马斯主义，英国哲学家、科学家培根（Roger Bacon）的实践的重要意义，无一不对文化的保存与发展做出了巨大的贡献。
在文学创作方面，出现了长篇的史诗（Epic）。日耳曼人的一支盎格鲁 萨克逊人的史诗《贝欧伍尔夫》是流传至今的早期英雄史诗最完整的一部。而《罗兰之歌》则是法国史诗中最著名的。
中世纪还产生了两位伟大的诗人――但丁和乔叟。意大利著名诗人但丁的《神曲》是世界文学史上的划时代的作品，表达了即将到来的文艺复兴时期的人文主义思想。英国诗人乔叟被称为英国文学史上第一位短篇小说家和第一位现代诗人，他最著名的作品是坎特伯雷故事集。
中世纪的建筑与艺术主要是罗马式的和哥特式的，他们都是古典艺术的延伸。
以上是对中世纪内容的综述，下面我们来解答一道问答题。
1. What were the power and influence of the Roman Catholic church in the Medieval times? (the Catholic Church?) 罗马天主教在中世纪的影响地位如何？
回答这个问题我们从以下几个方面：
1) 罗马天主教从教皇到教士的严格的层级制度和组织。
2) 罗马天主教在经济上和政治上的统治地位、宗教裁判所的作用。
3) 人们对罗马天主教信仰度，也就是为什么中世纪被叫做“信仰时代”。
4) 罗马天主教在文化艺术上的影响地位。比如哥特式建筑、罗马式建筑等。
5) 十字军东侵所造成的影响。
具体答案请参见练习册。
接下来我们来共同学习一下第四章，文艺复兴和宗教改革。这也是欧洲文化入门中相当重要的一个章节。
第四章 文艺复兴与宗教改革
本章重点有：科学背景，意大利文艺复兴的背景，意大利文艺复兴的文学和文艺大师，16世纪宗教改革，宗教改革领袖，英西法德荷诸国的文学人物及作品。
这个时期是欧洲封建社会逐渐解体，资本主义生产方式在封建社会母体内蕴育的时期，也是欧洲从中世纪封建社会向资本主义过渡的历史转折时期。从十四世纪开始，欧洲封建社会陆续出现了资本主义关系的萌芽；十五世纪末，随着新航路的开辟和地理大发现，世界市场形成了，这就进一步推动了资本主义的发展。但，这时新兴的资产阶级在政治上还是软弱的，因而他们的反封建的斗争主要表现在思想文化方面。
这一时期资产阶级反封建的思想斗争主要采取了两种方式：宗教改革和文艺复兴。
文艺复兴是从十四世纪到十七世纪初先在意大利产生，然后在欧洲其它许多国家相继发展起来的一次资产阶级性质的思想文化运动。它是资产阶级借助于古代文化以反对封建制度和宗教势力的一次斗争。这一时期，古希腊、罗马文化重新受到重视，当时新兴资产阶级的思想家们打着“回到希腊去“的旗号，声称要把久被淹没的古典文化“复兴”起来，“文艺复兴”由此而得名。而实际上，资产阶级的目的不是重建奴隶制旧文化，而是要摆脱封建思想的桎梏，建立适应资本主义生产关系的新的意识形态。人文主义是文艺复兴时期资产阶级反封建斗争的思想武器，也是这一时期资产阶级进步文学的中心思想。与天主教会的宗教世界观针锋相对的是，人文主义提出人是宇宙的中心，对“人”的肯定，成了资产阶级思想的核心。
宗教改革是资产阶级在宗教外衣下进行的一次反封建斗争。天主教会是中世纪西欧封建制度的精神支柱，一切反动势力的总代表。宗教改革是从教会营垒内部进行的针锋相对的斗争，它始于1517年马丁 路德（Martin Luther）在维登堡大学宣布的宗教改革纲领，并迅速遍及欧洲大陆。宗教改革者反对以罗马教皇为首的罗马天主教的绝对权威，主张对宗教教义、仪式和等级制度进行改革，并提出将《圣经》翻译成各国文字，以使平民可以不通过教会而直接与上帝进行交流。宗教改革运动的另一领袖加尔文（John Calvin）宣扬预定论，主张人生来就有原罪，只有极少数人可以成为上帝的选民。因此人们必须不断地辛勤工作，从而获得拯救。宗教改革动摇了中世纪以来罗马天主教的统治，解放了人们的思想。那以后，基督教分裂为旧教（the Roman Catholic）与新教（the Protestant）。同时，宗教改革也是一次社会改革运动，它反对罗马天主教对各国政治、经济的干涉。这一主张适应了新兴资产阶级的要求。
下面我们来看一下文艺复兴在各国文学艺术上的体现。
首先我们来看意大利。作为文艺复兴的发源地，意大利率先在文学艺术上取得了很大成就。这一时期，文学方面的杰出代表卜加丘（Boccaccio）和彼特拉克（Petrarch）。卜加丘（Boccaccio）的代表作《十日谈》（Decameron）在欧洲文学史上具有重要意义，他发展了中古短篇故事的传统，为意大利散文奠定了基础。彼特拉克在诗歌方面做出了巨大贡献。他擅长并写下了大量的十四行诗和抒情诗。十四行诗成为欧洲的重要诗体，彼特拉克被称为现代诗歌之父。
在艺术方面，文艺复兴早期的意大利艺术家有乔托（Giotto）、布鲁内莱斯基（Brunelleschi）、多纳泰洛（Donatello）和乔尔乔内（Giorgione）等。乔托（Giotto）是意大利现实主义绘画传统的奠基人，他的名作是《逃往埃及》（Flight into Egypt）。布鲁内莱斯基（Brunelleschi）是一位建筑师，他的代表作弗洛伦萨大教堂圆顶。多纳泰洛（Donatello）的雕塑达到了解剖学的精确，代表作有青铜铜像《大卫》（David）《加塔梅拉塔骑马像》（The Gattamelata Equestrian）。画家乔尔乔内（Giorgione）的画结构平衡，色彩和谐。他的名作是《睡着的维纳斯女神》（Sleeping Venus）开创了西方绘画中历久不衰的一个题材：裸体躺卧着的女神像。意大利文艺复兴在16世纪达到全盛时期，文艺的中心从弗洛伦萨转移到米兰和罗马。全盛时期产生了四位巨匠，他们是达芬奇（da Vinci）米开朗基罗（Michelangelo）拉斐尔（Raphael）和提香（Titian）。达芬奇的传世之作《最后的晚餐》（the Last Supper）、《蒙娜丽莎》（Mona Lisa），雕塑家米开朗基罗的大理石造像《大卫》、《即将死去的奴隶》，拉斐尔的圣母画，提香则是最多产的画家，建立了在帆布上涂油彩的传统，被誉为现代画之父。
在意大利文艺复兴的影响下，15世纪末，法国人文主义开始研究古希腊文化和哲学，出现了龙沙（Ronsard）拉伯雷（Rabelais）、蒙田（Montaigne）等伟大作家。拉伯雷的长篇小说《巨人传》（Gargantua and Pantagruel）以龙沙为代表的七星诗社（Pleiade）为法国的语言发展做出了很大贡献。龙沙诗法国第一个近代抒情诗人，他对19世纪法国浪漫主义有着很大的影响。人文主义作家蒙田以他的《散文集》而闻名于世，他是近代欧洲散文体裁的创始人。
西班牙人文主义发展较迟，直到16、17世纪之间，西班牙文学才进入“黄金时代”。文艺复兴时期西班牙小说的最高成就是塞万提斯，他的代表作《唐吉珂德》宣告了骑士传奇的终结。《唐吉珂德》是流浪汉小说的典范之作，被誉为欧洲现代小说之父。
北部领导荷兰尼德兰人文主义运动的人物是埃拉丝姆斯（Erasmus），他的《愚蠢颂》（The Praise of Folly）是部讽刺作品，揭露僧侣生活的虚伪。这一时期的画家是博鲁盖尔（Bruegel）以风景画著称，名作有《雪中猎人》（The Return of the Hunters）。他的乡村风景画对后来的画家米勒（Millet）有很大影响。
在德国，马丁路德是宗教改革的领袖，他用德国人民的语言翻译了《圣经》，使平民和农民能引用《圣经》的语言作为斗争的武器，对于德国语言的统一发生过作用，并奠定了德国文学语言的基础。在艺术方面，版画家丢勒（Durer）的木雕和荷尔拜因（Holbein）的肖像成就很高。
英国文学是文艺复兴时期欧洲文学的顶峰。早在14世纪，英国就产生了人文主义作家杰弗利乔叟（Geoffery Chaucer），作为承上启下的人物，乔叟我们在中世纪文学中已经谈到。到16世纪后半期到17世纪初，英国在伊丽莎白一世在位时，人文主义文学发展到了繁荣时期。这一时期的文学巨匠不仅在英国文学中占有很重要的地位而且在世界文学中也举足轻重。他们是威廉莎士比亚、托马斯莫尔、弗兰西斯培根、埃德蒙斯宾赛。莫尔是早期人文主义作家，他的主要著作《乌托邦》描绘了一个理想社会。成为后来描写理想社会文学的开端，也是空想社会主义的最初著作之一。
16世纪后期，英国文艺复兴运动达到高潮，人文主义文学空前发达。诗歌、小说、戏剧等都得到了很大发展。诗歌以斯宾赛的成就最高。他的代表作是长诗《仙后》。斯宾赛被成为“诗人的诗人”。十六世纪文学中成就最大的是戏剧。而其中文学成就最高的是莎士比亚，他也代表了欧洲文艺复兴的最高成就。在他的作品中，资产阶级人文主义思想表述得最为充分，艺术性也最高。他的重要悲剧、戏剧和历史剧有《哈姆雷特》、《麦克白》、《奥赛罗》、《李尔王》、《威尼斯商人》、《第十二夜》、《皆大欢喜》、《罗米欧与朱丽叶》、《安东尼和克里奥帕特拉》、《亨利四世》、《亨利五世》等。他的诗歌成就也很高，这主要表现在他的《十四行诗》中。
文艺复兴时期，科技也取得了重大进展。除了地理大发现以外，哥白尼发表了太阳中心说，并著有《天体运行论》，他被成为是西方现代天文学之父。安德勒斯维萨留斯（Andreas Vesalius）著有《论人体的结构》，他是西方现代解剖学的奠基人。此外还有在创办出版社的意大利学者和印刷商奥尔德斯马努蒂尔乌斯（Aldus Manutius），西方政治学之父马基雅维里及其著作《君主论》。
总之，文艺复兴是欧洲从中世纪封建社会向近代资本主义转变时期的反封建、反教会神权的一场伟大的思想解放运动。在这一时期，欧洲哲学、文学、艺术、科学等各方面都取得了极大的成就。
以上是对第四章的综述，下面我们来解答一下论述题。
1. What’s Renaissance? 什么是文艺复兴？
这本是简答题或名词解释的题型，放在论述题中，就不能几句话带过。回答这种类型的问题，我们要从下面几个方面：一、发生时间，历史背景；如本题是指14th 到17th世纪中期资本主义兴起阶段。二、其核心内容；如本题指人文主义思想家和学者试图去除封建主义的保守主义思想，挑战教会的绝对权威，引进资产阶级的新思想。 三、代表人物及其作品。这里不再赘述。四、造成的影响。如本题是指将人们从封建神学的桎梏中解放出来，并沉重打击了封建神权。
2. What positive influence does the reformation exert on world culture? 宗教改革对世界文化有什么影响？
回答这个问题要从以下几个方面：
1、罗马天主教的统治地位的动摇。
2、经济上，农民不用再向教皇纳贡。
3、在教育和文化方面，宗教的垄断被打破。
4、在宗教方面，新教教义提出对宗教的不同解释，向罗马天主教发出挑战。
5、在语言方面，出现了《圣经》的不同版本译文，拉丁语的优势地位受到挑战。
6、在精神方面，盲从不复存在，宗教改革家们引进了探索与争论的精神。
具体的答案请参见练习册。
以上是对文艺复习的综述。下面我们开始学习中世纪到现代社会的转折期，那就是17世纪。
第五章 17世纪 从中世纪到现代社会的转折期
本章的重点是：科学上的重大发现和重要人物，哲学上的重要人物及其思想，英国革命，法国古典主义，巴洛克艺术。
17世纪的欧洲在历史舞台上，揭开了近代史的序幕。这一时期，天文学、物理学、数学等科学都取得了很大发展。在创立科学方面，有四位杰出的科学家：波兰的哥白尼、德国的开普勒、意大利的伽利略和英国的牛顿。这些科学家都摈除了对权威和演绎推理法的依赖，而强调对自然的直接观察与实验。哥白尼的《天体运行论》标志着自然科学从神学中分离出来。开普勒是继哥白尼后第一个采纳太阳中心说的重要科学家，他证明、发展和修正了哥白尼的设想，发现了行星运动的三条定律，总称“开普勒定律”。而伽利略则是第一个把望远镜用于观察天空的人，他从望远镜的观察的结果证实了哥白尼的设想。除了天文学的贡献外，伽利略在物理学上还是动力学的始祖。他发现了加速度在动力学上的重要性，并发现了惯性定律。并且最早发现了落体定律。牛顿则利用伽利略的发现得出了万有引力定律。这一定律为近代科学的发展奠定了基础，是科学史上最伟大的发现之一。牛顿和另一位重要的科学家莱布尼兹都是微积分的创始人。莱布尼兹把人的理解力分为自我意识、意识和潜意识，这一学说为弗洛伊德的精神分析学打下了基础。
科学的大发展也激发了哲学的发展。科学的发展也激发了哲学的发展。经验哲学长久的地位被动摇了，代之而起的是现代哲学。现代哲学的代表主要有英国的培根、霍布士和洛克，法国的笛卡儿和加桑迪。培根和笛卡儿都被称为近代科学的始祖。培根宣称“知识就是力量”，他也是近代归纳法的创始人。霍布士在他的著作《利维坦》中提出国家论与社会契约论，他的理论是极端的王党政治。经验主义哲学家洛克在《政治论》中也提出了“社会契约学说”，但他的观点与霍布士恰恰相反，他强调个体应该服从多数人的意愿，君主专制不是民政政治。洛克的学说受到了英国革命、美国革命中资产阶级的欢迎，也对18世纪启蒙运动做出了重大贡献。笛卡儿哲学中最重要的是他的认识论，他的格言是“我思故我在”。他主张怀疑一切，认为精神比物质确实，但物质并不以来人的精神存在，是一个“二元论者”。
哲学和政治学说推动了新兴资产阶级进行的革命，这主要表现在英国革命和法国的君主专政政体的建立中。英国资产阶级革命是打着宗教的旗号“清教运动”进行的。1642年，国王（当时是查理一世）与代表新兴资产阶级利益的议会之间爆发了内战，在克伦威尔的领导下，1649年资产阶级取得胜利，建立了最初的资产阶级共和国的典范。但由于资产阶级的两面性，在1660年与封建贵族妥协，迎回查理二世，史称“斯图亚特王朝复辟”。由于复辟后的王朝迫害革命领导人士，还想恢复天主教，于是资产阶级在1688年再次发动政变，发动“光荣革命”，迎来荷兰的威廉做英国国王，建立了君主立宪制国家。革命后，英国的资本主义得到了迅速发展，成了欧洲最先进的国家。在法国，胡格诺战争已经结束，建立起中央集权的君主专制国家，到17世纪中叶路易十四当政初期，达到了鼎盛时期。它的君主专制政体的建立是在资本主义成长，足以与贵族势力抗衡的条件下形成的。
出现在17世纪欧洲艺术史上的新现象是巴洛克风格。巴洛克艺术指的是1600年到1730年间遍布欧洲的一种艺术样式。首先出现在意大利，后传播到西班牙、葡萄牙、法国等欧洲其它地方。巴洛克艺术基本上以宇宙为中心，惯用的主题是宗教的狂热。1660年到1730年，巴洛克艺术中心转移到法国，其代表人物有画家卡拉瓦乔（0、委拉丝贵支、鲁本斯、伦布朗等，雕塑家贝尼尼、波罗米尼等。
17世纪英国文学的重要作家是以散文著称的培根和英国革命和复辟时期的米尔顿。米尔顿的主要作品是《失乐园》、《复乐园》和《力士参孙》。
17世纪欧洲最主要的思潮是古典主义。它产生于本世纪初期的法国，影响到欧洲其它各国，持续到19世纪初。其首要特征是具有为王权服务的鲜明倾向性。其次是注重理性，第三个特点是模仿古代，重视格律，三一律是他们共同遵守的规律。这一派作家的成就重要体现在戏剧方面，代表人物及其作品有：悲剧家高乃依，他的作品《熙德》被成为法国第一部古典主义悲剧。悲剧家拉辛，他的作品有《安德洛玛科》、《菲德尔》；喜剧家莫里哀《达杜夫》、《愤世嫉俗》和《吝啬鬼》。其中《达杜夫》中骗子达杜夫的名字在欧洲成了伪善的代名词。
以上是对17世纪的综述，下面我们来解答一下问答题。
1. Why do we say the 17th century is a transitional (过渡的) period from middle ages to the modern times? 为什么说17世纪是中世纪到现代社会的过渡期？
这个问题我们从以下几个方面回答：
1）科学（包括天文学、物理学和纯粹数学）的大发展。这里面的重要人物是伽利略、开普勒、牛顿。
2）哲学的发展，人类世界观的转变。人们开始思考人在宇宙中的位置。其中重要人物是笛卡儿。
3）新科学和哲学推动了新兴资产阶级的政治运动。
4）因此说，现代社会开始于17世纪。
2. What is the different between Tomas Hobbes and John Locke in terms of Social Contract?霍布斯和洛克的社会契约论有何不同？
回答这个问题，我们要先阐述他们各自的理论内容，然后进行比较。
他们各自的理论内容这里就不再赘述，我们来一起看一下他们的根本区别。
1）霍布斯的社会契约是为了避免战争，人与人之间是敌对的；而洛克认为人与人之间是平等的，他们靠理性而有社会契约。
2）霍布斯认为要有君主专制，其他人要绝对服从。而洛克认为少数应服从多数。统治者由选举而生，人们有权推翻他。
具体的答案请参见练习册。
接下来我们来共同学习第六章：18世纪的理性时代。
第六章 启蒙运动 the age of reason/理性时代/新古典主义
本章学习的重点有：工业革命，启蒙运动，启蒙思想家及其理念，新古典主义及其重要作家作品。
18世纪的启蒙运动是欧洲资产阶级和人民大众反封建的思想文化运动，兴起于法国，很快波及到欧洲大陆其它国家以及北美地区。启蒙运动是继文艺复兴以后人类的第二次思想解放运动。涉及哲学、宗教、政治、经济、史学、科学、美学、文学各个领域。启蒙，就其字面意义讲，是指当时的进步思想家提倡用近代文化“启迪”人们的理性和智慧，“照亮”愚昧、落后、黑暗的封建社会，以消除基督教会和贵族统治所散布的迷信和偏见。启蒙运动是在资本主义经济发展、广大人民反封建斗争高涨的历史条件下，在自然科学和唯物主义哲学的影响下产生的，是作为法国资产阶级革命舆论准备尔出现在欧洲历史上的。
法国的启蒙运动最典型、最富于革命精神，影响也最大。18世纪以来，法国的思想家们如孟德斯鸠、伏尔泰、卢梭、狄德罗等把启蒙运动推向了高峰。孟德斯鸠是法国启蒙运动的先驱，他的代表作是《波斯人信札》、《论法的精神》。其中《论法的精神》中提出的立法、行政、司法三权分立学说为后来许多资产阶级国家宪法奠定了理论基础。这本书被伏尔泰誉为“自由和理性的法典”。伏尔泰的代表作是《哲学书简》。卢梭的最重要的作品是《社会契约论》，其次是《论人类不平等的根源》。这一时期法国哲学还有以狄德罗为代表的“百科全书派”。18世纪后半期，在欧洲哲学史上占有重要地位的是德国哲学家康德，他是德国古典哲学的奠基人，近代西方哲学史上二元论、先验论和不可知论的著名代表。他的哲学体系构架主要体现在他的三部巨著中《纯粹理性批判》、《实践理性批判》和《判断力批判》。他在自然科学领域的贡献也很大，写成了《自然通史和天体论》，在此书中，他提出了在天文史上有重大意义的“星云假说”。
启蒙运动也是一场非常激烈的政治革命运动。18世界震撼世界的革命是美国的独立战争和法国的1789年大革命。美国独立革命中颁布的《独立宣言》和法国革命期间颁布的《人权宣言》是革命精神的最好体现。与此同时，英国在进行一场影响世界的大革命――以机器的出现和使用为标志的工业革命。工业革命使英国成了资本主义的头号强国。
启蒙运动作为一个广泛的思想革命运动，也影响到文学的发展。这一时期，古典主义仍然统治文坛。在艺术上的表现主要是罗可可艺术。在音乐方面，巴洛克音乐达到了高峰。在英国文学中，古典主义在诗歌中最有影响，出现了擅长英雄双韵体的蒲伯，被称为“理性时代”的诗歌代言人。另一个古典主义的代表是约翰逊编纂了英语词典，为英语的规范做出了贡献。但这一时期英国文学最突出的贡献在于小说。此时的重要作家有：笛福、斯维夫特、菲尔丁、里查生等。笛福《鲁滨逊漂流记》、菲尔丁的《汤姆 琼斯》、斯维夫特的《格列佛游记》以及里查生的书信体小说等都以现实生活为体裁，标志着英国现实主义小说发展的新阶段。
在法国，孟德斯鸠、伏尔泰、卢梭、狄德罗等既是启蒙思想家又是启蒙文学家。孟德斯鸠的《波斯人信札》、伏尔泰的《老实人》（Candide）、卢梭的《新爱洛伊丝》（The New Heloise）、《埃米尔》（Emile）、《忏悔录》（The Confession）以及狄德罗的《拉默的侄儿》（Rameau’s Nephew）等都是这一时期的代表作。德国的启蒙文学以古典主义为主，代表人物有莱辛（Lessing）、歌德和席勒。莱辛在戏剧创作、理论以及美学方面都很有成就。他的主要作品有剧本《明娜 冯 巴尔赫姆》（Minna Von Barnharm）和《智者纳旦》（Nathan the Wise），美学作品《拉奥孔》，戏剧评论《汉堡剧评》。席勒的作品有《强盗》（The Robber）、《阴谋与爱情》（Cabal and Love）、《瓦伦斯坦》（Wallenstein）。歌德是德国文学史上最伟大的作家，也是世界文学史上最伟大的作家之一。他是狂飙突进运动的主要参与者。其作品有《少年维特的烦恼》、《威廉 迈斯特的学习时代》、《威廉 迈斯特的漫游时代》、《浮士德》。
启蒙时期在艺术上的表现主要是罗可可艺术（Rococo Art）。罗可可艺术发端于法国路易十四和路易十五时代，后从法国传播到欧洲各国。罗可可绘画的代表是瓦托和布歇。
在音乐方面，巴洛克音乐在18世纪中期达到了高峰。德国作曲家巴赫和亨德尔代表了这一时期的最高成就。亨德尔的代表作是《弥赛亚》（Messiah）。随着欧洲资产阶级启蒙运动的兴起和早期维也纳古典主义的诞生，巴洛克音乐逐渐黯淡下去。维也纳古典主义崇尚理性，强调道德力量，作品的结构严谨，艺术手法简练，对后来欧洲音乐的发展有着深远的影响。其代表人物有海顿、莫扎特和贝多芬。莫扎特的主要创作领域是歌剧，他一生共写了20多部歌剧，其中《费加罗的婚礼》、《唐璜》和《魔笛》是他的代表作。
总之，启蒙运动是思想家们在宗教上用自然神论和无神论批判上帝和迷信，在哲学上以唯物论批判中世纪的经院哲学，在经济上以自由放任论反对封建束缚，政治上以社会契约论反对王权神授，用理性的原则、自由平等的原则批驳中世纪的等级特权，用知识、科学启迪人们的愚昧无知和传统偏见，从而为资本主义发展扫清各种障碍。
以上是对18世纪的综述，现在我们来共同探讨一下问答题。
1. What is the historical context for the Enlightenment to develop?启蒙运动发展的社会背景是什么？
回答这个问题要从以下几个方面：
1) 美国独立战争结束了英国对美国的殖民统治及在此过程中《独立宣言》的发表
2）1789年的法国革命及其《人权宣言》的发表。
3）18世纪60年代到19世纪30年代的工业革命开创了一个崭新的时代。
2. What is the great significant of the Industrial Revolution? 工业革命的巨大意义是什么？
这个问题可以这样回答：
1）机器生产的引进减少了人工的使用。
2）蒸气机的使用。
3）手工作坊到工厂体系的改变。
4）新的更便捷的交通工具的出现。
5）资产阶级和工人阶级两大阶级的对立。
详细答案请参见练习册。
下面我们来学习第七章。
18世纪是理性的时代，继之而起的是浪漫主义时代。
第七章 浪漫主义
本章的重点有：浪漫主义运动及其代表人物、作品。
浪漫主义指的是18世纪后半叶至19世纪上半叶盛行于欧洲的并表现于文学和艺术各个部门的一种主要的文艺思潮。实际上，浪漫主义文学的倾向在18世纪的感伤文学、德国的狂飙突进运动和英国前期浪漫主义文学中已有所表现。浪漫主义的兴起与这一时期的主流哲学德国古典主义哲学和空想社会主义思潮关系密切。在艺术手法上，浪漫主义的本质特点是它的主观性。另一个重要特点是对大自然的热爱和对工业文明的厌恶。浪漫主义作家还喜欢用夸张的手法，追求强烈的美丑对比和出奇制胜的艺术效果，他们重视中世纪民间文学，注意吸取、采用其体裁、语言、表达方式等。他们常用的文学体裁是诗歌。
浪漫主义文学在德国起步较早。其最初表现为歌德和席勒倡导的“狂飙突进”运动，后来又出现了以施雷戈尔兄弟（Schlegel brothers）、诺瓦利斯（Novalis）、蒂克（Tieck）为代表的“耶拿派”浪漫主义文学。后来，浪漫主义在德国日趋衰落，海涅在1836年发表的《论浪漫派》宣告了浪漫主义在德国文学中的统治地位的结束。
英国是当时欧洲工业最发达的国家，资本主义社会的矛盾和弊端也较早暴露出来，因而英国的浪漫主义运动有其自己的特点。其早期代表有彭斯和布莱克。后有“湖畔派”诗人华兹华斯、科尔律治和骚塞。继“湖畔派”之后，拜伦、雪莱、济慈三位浪漫派诗人在文坛上各领风骚。这一时期，瓦尔特 司格特在叙事文学方面做出了很大贡献，创始了欧洲历史小说。
法国浪漫主义文学形成于1820年左右。早期代表是夏多布里昂，主要作品有《阿拉达》和《勒内》。雨果是法国浪漫主义文学最重要的作家。他在1827年发表的《克伦威尔绪言》是法国浪漫主义运动的一篇重要宣言。其重要作品有《巴黎圣母院》和《悲惨世界》。乔治 桑是一位杰出的浪漫主义女作家，其代表作是《印第安娜》。
意大利浪漫主义文学的重要代表是小说家曼佐尼（Manzoni）和诗人莱奥帕尔迪（Leopardi）。曼佐尼的代表作是小说《约婚夫妇》（The Betrothed），莱奥帕尔迪的著名诗篇是《致希尔维亚》（To Sylvia）。
以上是对浪漫主义的综述，现在我们来共同探讨一下问答题。
1. What is the historical background for Romanticism to develop? 浪漫主义发展的历史背景是什么？
这个问题我们可以从以下几个方面回答：
答：1) 启蒙运动带来了两大革命，这两大革命促成了浪漫主义的产生。
2) 第一场革命是1789年爆发的法国大革命。他们的口号是自由、平等、博爱。
3)第二场革命是工业革命。科技的进步给社会和个人都带来了重大变化。人的思维也受到根本性的影响。
接下来我们来学习第八章，马克思主义和达尔文学说。本章相对其它章节而言是个次重点。重点掌握马克思主义构成及其理论来源，达尔文学说的精髓。
第八章 马克思主义与达尔文学说
首先来看马克思主义思想。
（一）马克思主义思想
马克思主义思想产生于19世纪40年代，当时欧洲几个主要资本主义国家正经历着严重的内患。随着生产力的发展，资本主义生产方式所固有的生产社会化与私人占有之间的矛盾日趋尖锐。1825年后，资本主义国家周期性地受到经济危及的冲击。与此同时，无产阶级和资产阶级的矛盾也日益尖锐。无产阶级的斗争也从自发斗争发展到有组织有规模的政治斗争。19世纪30－40年代相继爆发了法国里昂工人起义、英国宪章运动、德国西里西亚纺织工人起义，表明无产阶级已作为独立的政治力量登上了历史舞台。它迫切需要一种全新的科学世界观，以便正确认识世界和改造世界，实现自己的伟大历史使命。马克思主义哲学正是适应了这种社会需要而创立。马克思主义哲学的理论来源是19世纪的德国古典哲学、英国古典政治经济学和法国的空想社会主义。尤其是以黑格尔和费尔巴哈为代表的德国古典哲学，是马克思主义哲学的直接理论来源。黑格尔在历史上第一个以唯心主义的形式，系统地阐述了辩证法的基本规律，把整个自然、历史和精神的世界描写为不断运动、变化和转变的过程，并企图揭示这种运动和发展的内在联系。费尔巴哈从唯物主义立场出发，坚持世界的物质性，强调研究自然和人；坚持意识是大脑的属性，充分相信人的感官，反对不可知论。他对宗教和黑格尔唯心主义思辩哲学的批判，恢复了唯物主义的权威。马克思、恩格斯批判地吸收了他们思想的积极因素。19世纪自然科学领域中的重大发现也为马克思主义哲学的创立提供了必要的理论根据。
马克思哲学的三个组成部分是：完备的哲学唯物主义、政治经济学和科学社会主义。《共产党宣言》的发表，标志着马克思主义世界观的正式诞生。《资本论》以具体实践验证了唯物史观是一门有经验事实作根据，有客观规律可循的科学。
（二）达尔文主义
英国生物学家达尔文创立了以自然选择为中心的生物进化理论。他运用大量材料令人信服地证明了现存多样的生物是由原始的共同祖先逐渐演化过来的，解释了自然选择是生物进化的动因，从而使进化论真正成为科学。自然选择的主要内容包括变异和遗传、生存竞争和选择等。英国生物学家华莱士与达尔文的学说成为“达尔文主义”。达尔文主义的代表人物还有赫胥黎和海克尔。
达尔文的进化论不仅是生物学的伟大革命，也是人类思想史上的革命，具有巨大的哲学意义。很多后来的学者和思想家都采用了达尔文主义宣扬他们的哲学思想和社会政治观点，产生了社会达尔文主义、庸俗进化论等流派。社会达尔文主义的主要代表是斯宾赛。他在《社会学远离》等著作中用达尔文学说中的“生存斗争”和“适者生存”的原理来说明社会历史。他认为，社会机体和生物有机体是相似的，人类社会的变化过程有如生物的进化过程，生物进化的规律也就是社会历史的永恒的自然规律。人类的历史就是残酷的“生存斗争”，“适者生存”的历史。这一学说对后来的自然主义文学有极大的影响。
以上是对第八章的综述，现在我们来共同探讨一下问答题。
1. What are the three sources (来源) of Marxism?马克思主义的三大来源是什么？马克思主义的三大来源是：1） 德国古典哲学：其中包括黑格尔辩证法和费尔巴哈唯物主义。
2）英国古典政治经济学
3、法国空想社会主义。其中包括欧文、 圣西门和傅立叶。
详细内容参见练习册。
下面是第九章有关19世纪中期开始的现实主义的内容。本章的重点是：现实主义及其代表人物、作品，现实主义与浪漫主义的区别。现实主义产生的社会背景。印象派画家及其作品。
第九章 现实主义
现实主义是在孔德实证主义的影响下，对理想主义的启蒙思潮和浪漫主义的反动，它是在1850年到1880年之间，在法国、英国和德国等地几乎同时兴起的文学思潮。其特点是：一、不夸张或空想，而是客观地把握和表现现实。二、不是类型的而是个性地描写人物和事件。因此，现实主义尊重“特性”，不美化对象。其作品的体裁广泛，虚构的事实、人物基本上来源于现实的社会生活。现实主义盛行的时候，形成了小说创作的黄金时代。
随着社会形式思想文化条件的改变，这个时期的法国文学又发生了重要变化，出现了批判现实主义文学和自然主义文学。司汤达的主要长篇小说《红与黑》是法国批判现实主义第一部成熟的作品。他的另一部重要小说是《巴马修道院》。巴尔扎克是法国批判现实主义的中流砥柱。他在《人间喜剧》中，对当时的社会生活做了广阔的反映。福楼拜非常注重艺术形式，其代表作是《包法利夫人》。自然主义文学的代表人物是左拉。他认为小说不但是忠实地反映现实而且要从所描写的事物中得出符合某种自然科学定理的结论。他的长篇小说集《鲁贡－马卡尔家族史》（Les Rouge – Macquarts）充分体现了他的自然主义创作原则。
俄国现实主义小说史世界文坛上的一朵奇葩。代表人物有果戈里、屠格涅夫、陀思妥耶夫斯基和托尔斯泰等，而尤以后二者更甚。陀思妥耶夫斯基的代表作有《罪与罚》和《卡玛拉佐夫兄弟》。他创作中的非理性、直觉主义的成分，以及醉心于病态心理的描写，使他被现代派奉为鼻祖。
托尔斯泰史现实主义大师，他善于创新，不墨守成规。他的代表作有《战争与和平》、《安娜卡列尼娜》、《复活》等。
英国的现实主义文学出现于维多利亚女皇后半期。其最主要的代表人物是狄更斯。他的小说展现了广阔的社会生活。代表作有《大卫 科波菲尔》、《荒凉山庄》、《艰难时世》等。另一为重要的现实主义作家是萨克雷，他的代表作是《名利场》。
马克 吐温和亨利 詹姆士为美国现实主义代言人。马克吐温的幽默、人物塑造、现实主义表现以及真实口语的使用，使他成为美国文学史上开风气的人物。他的《哈克贝利分历险记》是一部具有划时代意义的作品。亨利詹姆士关心社会的上层人物。《贵妇人画像》是他的一部非常有名的小说。
现实主义艺术流派从18世纪40年代至60年代以法国为中心发展至全欧洲。在法国代表人物有杜米埃（Honore Daumier）、米勒（Jean-Francois Millet）、库尔贝（Gustave Courbet）库尔贝的名作有《石工》（The Stonebreakers）和《奥而南的葬礼》（Burial at Ornans）。被成为被成为“农民画家”的米勒有两部优秀的作品《播种者》（The Sower）和《拾穗者》（The Gleaner）。
这一时期的绘画方面出现了印象派画家，他们注重在绘画中对外光的研究与表现，在绘画表现了开辟了新的领域。主要代表人物有马奈（Edouard Manet）、莫奈（Claude Monet）、毕沙罗（Camilloe Pissarro）和雷诺（Pierre Auguste Renoir）等。马奈的代表作有《草地上的午餐》（The Luncheon on the Grass）、《福列斯――贝热尔酒吧间》（Foliers Bergers）。莫奈的作品《日出 印象》（Impression: Sunrise）是不朽的传世之作。
印象派追求微妙的色彩变化而走向表现主观感觉，他们忽略了构图和形体的秩序，于是一部分画家如塞尚、凡高、高更等逐渐与之分离，追求自己的特色艺术。这部分画家贝成为后印象派。高更的作品有《讲道以后的幻境》（Vision after the Sermon）。凡高的代表作有《咖啡馆夜市》（The Night Café）、《向日葵》（Sunflower）和《星光灿烂》（Starry Night）等。
以上是对现实主义的综述，现在我们来共同探讨一下论述题。
1. What is the historical background of Realism?现实主义的历史背景是什么？
这个问题可以从以下几个方面回答：
1）19世纪科学的发展。现实主义时代也是科技发明的时代。
2）19世纪也是西方历史上文明大变革的时期。德国和意大利都完成了统一。
3） 城乡之间的极深的断层带来了很多社会和经济问题，造成了19世纪的政治和思想家们的分化。
下面我们开始进入20世纪，来了解一下现代主义。本章重点内容是现代主义的内容及其产生的时代背景，其主要流派以及代表人物、作品。
第十章 现代主义及其他思潮
一战前后，在西方发达国家许多现代派艺术先后出场，到20世纪20年代形成高潮。主要流派有后期象征主义、未来主义、超现实主义、意识流小说等。这段时期出现了一批具有世界影响的接触作家。如爱尔兰的乔伊斯、英国的伍尔夫、法国的普鲁斯特、美国的福克纳等等。二战后，西方社会一片悲观阴暗气氛，存在主义哲学思想泛滥，现代派文学进入一个新的发展阶段。这一阶段的现代派文学也被成为“后现代派”。具体有萨特、加谬为代表的法国存在主义文学，以有奈斯库、贝克特等为代表的荒诞派戏剧，以海勒为代表的黑色幽默派和以奥斯本为代表的英国的“愤怒的青年”等。现代派文学在思想内容上鼓吹非理性主义，二战前的作家主要受叔本华、伯格森、尼采等哲学家以及心理学家弗洛伊德的精神分析学的影响，二战后的作家受存在主义的影响。现代派作家还强调表现自我，他们经常描写人的异化的主题，认为现代人已经失去了自我的本质，他们的创作也成了“寻找自我”的文学。
现代派文学的艺术特征是：1. 反对传统的现实主义，反对塑造典型环境下的典型人物，主张在艺术形式上大胆创新。2. 他们经常运用象征手法。3. 普遍使用意识流手法。4. 荒诞。
英国的现代主义作者群相当强大。诗歌代表有艾略特，他的《荒原》是20世纪西方文学里一部划时代的作品，是现代诗歌的里程碑。他的《普鲁弗洛克的情歌》和《四个四重奏》也都是有名的作品。小说代表有约瑟夫 康拉德，意识流小说家伍尔夫及劳伦斯。康拉德的代表作有《吉姆爷》和《黑暗的中心》。伍尔夫的作品有《戴洛维夫人》和《到灯塔去》。 劳伦斯的代表作是《查特来夫人的情人》、《儿子和情人》、《虹》、《恋爱中的女人》等。
爱尔兰作家也有非常优秀的现代主义作品。诗人叶芝是一代巨匠，他的作品有《责任》、《塔》、《盘旋的楼梯》。乔伊斯是20世纪最伟大的作家。他在小说结构方面的独特构思与他所采用的新奇的手法如内心独白和意识流，使他声名远扬。他的主要作品有小说《尤利西斯》、《芬尼根的苏醒》，短篇小说集《都柏林人》，自传小说《青年艺术家的画像》等。
美国作家也为现代主义文学添上了浓重的一笔。其中重要代表人物有庞德、福克纳、海明威、等。康德是意象派的领导人，后又发起了漩涡主义运动。他的代表作是《诗章》（Cantos）。福克纳的代表作有《喧嚣与愤怒》（The Sound and the Fury）、《在我弥留之际》（As I Lay Dying）。作为迷惘的一代的代言人的海明威的作品相当丰富，代表作有《太阳照样升起》（The Sun Also Rises）、《永别了，武器》（A Farewell to Arms）、《战地钟声》（For Whom the Bell Tolls）、《老人与海》（The Old Man and the Sea）等。
法国的现代主义代表作家是普鲁斯特，他的《追忆逝水年华》（Remembrance of Things Past）在西方文坛上占据重要地位。他与亨利 詹姆士一起开创了现代小说的新风气。
二战后的世界文坛也是百花齐放。英国有以艾米斯和奥斯本为代表的“愤怒的青年”，他们的代表作分别是《幸运的吉姆》（Lucky Jim）和《愤怒的回顾》（Look Back in Anger）。美国有跨掉的一代，代表作有金斯堡（Kinsberg）的《嚎叫》（Howl）和凯鲁亚克（Kerouac）的《在路上》（On the Road）。法国有新小说派，代表作有罗布 戈里耶的《橡皮》（Erasers）、《嫉妒》（La Jalousie）和《去年在玛利亚温泉》（Last Year at Marienbad）以及萨洛特（Sarraute）的《无名氏画像》（Portrait of a Man Unknown）。此外，欧洲的荒诞派戏剧也很风行，代表作有尤奈斯库的《秃头歌女》（The Bald Prima Donna）以及贝克特的《等待戈多》（Waiting for Godot）。在美国还有黑色幽默派作家，最著名的是海勒，他的《二十二条军规》（Catch 22）是典型的黑色幽默之作。
以上是对20世纪现代主义的综述，现在我们来共同探讨一下问答题。
1. What are the Characters of modernism? 现代主义有何特点？
这个问题可以从以下几个方面回答：
1） 现代主义在艺术创作方面所呈现的复杂多样性。表现在象征主义、超现实主义、立体主义、表现主义和未来主义等。
2）任何与传统分离的创作都可归于现代主义。
3） 现代主义以全新的方式看待人所处的位置。
详细信息和其它试题请参见练习册。
第一章
填空题：
1. The richness of European Culture was created by ________element and _________element. Greco-Roman Judeo-Christian
2. The Homer’s epics consisted of_________. Iliad and Odyssey
3. ________ is the first writer of “problem plays”. Euripides
4. __________ is called “Father of History”. Herodotus
5. ________The greatest historian that ever lived. Thucydides
The dividing range in the Roman history refers to ________. 27 B.C.
“I came, I saw, I conquered.” By _______. Julius Caesar
The representation form of Greek Democracy is __________. citizen-assembly.
判断题
1. Euclid says “Give me a place to stand, and I will move the world”. (×) Archimedes
2. Herodotus’s historical writing is on the war between Anthens and Sparta. (×) Greeks and Persians
名词解释：
1. Pax Romana
答：In the Roman history ,there came two hundred years of peaceful time, which was guaranteed by the Roman legions, it was known as Pax Romana
2. “Democracy” in ancient Greece
答： 1）Democracy means “exercise of power by the whole people”, but in Greece by “the whole people” the Greeks meant only the adult male citizens.
2） Women, children, foreigners and slaves were excluded from Democracy.
论述题：
1. How did the Greek Culture originate and develop?
答：1) Probably around 1200 B.C., a war was fought between Greece and troy. This is the war that Homer refers to in his epics.
2) Greek culture reached a high point of development in the 5th century B.C.
A. The successful repulse of the Persian invasion early in the 5th century.
B. The establishment of democracy.
C. The flourishing of science, philosophy, literature, art and historical writing in Athens.
3)The 5th century closed with civil war between Athens and Sparta.
4) In the second half of the 4th century B.C., Greece was conquered by Alexander, king of Macedon. Whenever he went and conquered, whenever Greek culture was found.
5) Melting between Greek culture and Roman culture in 146 B.C., the Romans conquered Greece.
2. What is the great significance of Greek Culture on the later-on cultural development?
答： There has been an enduring excitement about classical Greek culture in Europe and elsewhere Rediscovery of Greek culture played a vital part in the Renaissance in Italy and other European countries.
1) Spirit of innovation
The Greek people invented mathematics and science and philosophy; They first wrote history as opposed to mere annals; They speculated freely about the nature of the world and the ends of life, without being bound in the fetters of any inherited orthodoxy.
2) Supreme Achievement
The Greeks achieved supreme achievements in nearly all fields of human endeavour努力: Philosophy, science, epic poetry, comedy, historical writing, architecture, etc.
3) Lasting effect
A. Countless writers have quoted, borrowed from and otherwise used Homer’s epics, the tragedies of Aeschylus and Sophocles and Euripides, Aristophanes’s comedies, Plato’s Dialogues,ect.
B. In the early part of the 19th century, in England alone, three young Romantic poets expressed their admiration of Greek culture in works which have themselves become classics: Byron’s Isles of Greece, Shelley’s Hellas and Prometheus Unbound and Keats’s Ode on a Grecian Urn.
C. In the 20th century, there are Homeric parallels in the Irishman James Joyce’s modernist masterpiece Ulysses.
3. What is the similarity and difference between Greek culture and Roman culture?
答：1) similarities:
A. Both peoples had traditions rooted in the idea of the citizen-assembly.
B. Their religions were alike enough for most of their deities to be readily identified, and their myths to be fused.
C. Their languages worked in similar ways, both being members of the Indo-European language family.
2) differences:
A. The Romans built up a vast empire; the Greeks didn’t, except for the brief moment of Alexander’s conquests, which soon disintegrated.
B. The Romans were confident in their own organizational power, their military and administrative capabilities.
4. What is the Rome historical background?
答：1) The history of Rome divided into two periods: Before the year 27 B.C., Rome had been a republic; from the year 27 B.C., Octavius took supreme power as emperor with the title of Augustus and Roman Empire began.
2) Two centuries later, the Roman Empire reached its climax, marked by land area’s extension: Encircling the Mediterranean.
3) Strong military power: the famous Roman legions.
4) In the Roman history ,there came two hundred years of peaceful time, which was guaranteed by the Roman legions, it was known as Pax Romana.
5) Another important contribution made by the Romans to European culture was Roman Law.
6) The empire began to decline in the 3rd century.
A. In the 4th century the emperor Constantine moved the capital from Rome to Byzantium. Renamed it Constantinople (modern Istanbul).
B. After 395, the empire was divided into East (The Byzantine Empire) and West
C. In 476 the last emperor of the West was deposed by Goths and this marked the end of the West Roman Empire.
D. The East Roman Empire collapsed when Constantinople fell to the Turks in 1453.
第二章
填空题：
1. ___________is by far the most influential in the West. Christianity
2. The Hebrews history was recorded in _________of the Bible. the Old Testament
3. The New Testament is about _________. the doctrine of Jesus Christ
4. The story about God’s flooding to the human being and only good-virtue being saved was recorded in Genesis, Pentateuch, the Old Testament, the Bible, which was known as _________. Noah’s Ark.
5. The Birth of Jesus was recorded in ________. Matthew
6. The story about Jesus being pinned in the cross to death was known as _________. The Last Supper.
7. The first English version of whole Bible was translated from the Latin Vulgate in 1382 and was copied out by hand by the early group of reformers led by _________. John Wycliff.
名词解释:
1. The Old Testament
The Bible was divided into two sections: the Old Testament and the New Testament. The Old Testament is about God and the Laws of God. The word “Testament” means “agreement”, the agreement between God and Man.
2. Pentateuch
The Old Testament consists of 39 books, the oldest and most important of which are the first five books, called Pentateuch. Pentateuch contains five books: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy.
3. Genesis
Genesis is one of the five books in Pentateuch, it tells about a religious account of the origin of the Hebrews people, including the origin of the world and of man, the career of Issac and the life of Jacob and his son Joseph.
4. Exodus
Exodus is one of the five books in Pentateuch, it tells about a religious history of the Hebrews during their flight from Egypt, the period when they began to receive God’s Law. Joshua brought the people safely back toCanaan.
5. The Book of Daniel
The Book of Daniel belongs to The Old Testament of the Bible. It tells about the Hebrews being carried away into Babylon.
论述简答题：
1. What are the beliefs of Christianity?
答： Christianity based itself on two forceful beliefs which separate it from all other religions.
1）One is that Jesus Christ is the Son of God, and that God sent him to earth to live as humans live, suffer as humans suffer, and die to redeem mankind.
2）The other is that God gave his only begotten son , so that whosoever believes in him should not perish, but have everlasting life.
2. What are the different translation editions of the Bible?
答：1)The oldest extant Greek translation of the Old Testament is known as the Septuagint. And it is still in use in the Greek Church today. But it only translated the Old Testament.
2) The most ancient extant Latin version of the whole Bible is the Vulgate edition, which was done in 385-405 A.D. By St. Jerome in common people’s language. It became the official Bible of the Roman Catholic Church throughout the world.
3) The first English version of whole Bible was translated from the Latin Vulgate in 1382 and was copied out by hand by the early group of reformers led by John Wycliff.
4) After John Wycliff’s version, appeared William Tyndale’s version. It was based on the original Hebrew and Greek sources.
5) The Great Bible ordered by Henry Ⅷ in 1539 to be placed in all the English churches was in part founded on Tyndale’s work.
6) The most important and influential of English Bible is the “Authorized” or “King James” version, first published in 1611. It was produced by 54 biblical scholars at the command of King James. With its simple, majestic Anglo-Saxon tongue, it is known as the greatest book in the English languages.
7) The Revised Version appeared in 1885, and the standard American edition of the Revised Version in 1901.
8) The Good News Bible and the New English Bible.
3. What is the great significance of the translations of the bible?
答：1) It is generally accepted that the English Bible and Shakespeare are two great reservoirs of Modern English.
2) Miltion’s Paradise Lost, Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress, Byron’s Cain, up to the contemporary Hemingway’s The Sun Also Rises, and Steinbeck’s East of Eden. They are not influenced without the effect of the Bible.
第三章
填空题：
1. In _______ a Germanic (日耳曼) general killed the last Roman emperor and took control of the government. 476
2. After 1054, the church was divided into _________ and _______. the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church.
3. _______ is the one who translated into Latin both Old and New Testament from the Hebrew and Greek originals. St. Jerome
4. ______introduced French and Italy writing the English native alliterative verse.
5. Both ___________are the best representative of the middle English. Chaucer and The Canterbury Tales
6. _________ paved the way for the development of what is the present-day European culture. the Middel Ages
名词解释
1. the Middle ages
In European history, the thousand-year period following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century is called the Middle Ages. The middle ages is so called because it came between ancient times and modern times. To be specific, from the 5th century to 15th century.
2. Feudalism
Feudalism in Europe was mainly a system of land holding— a system of holding land in exchange for military service. The word “feudalism” was derived from the Latin “feudum”, a grant of land.
3. The Manor
The centre of medieval life under feudalism was the manor. Manors were founded on the fiefs of the lords. By the twelfth century manor houses were made of stone and designed as fortresses. They came to be called castles.
4. Carolingian Renaissance
Carolingian Renaissance is derived from Charlemagne’s name in Latin, Carolus. The most interesting facet of this rather minor renaissance is the spectacle of Frankish or Germanic state reaching out to assimilate the riches of the Roman Classical and the Christianized Hebraic culture.
5. Gothic
1) The Gothic style started in France and quickly spread through all parts of Western Europe.
2) It lasted from the mid-12th to the end of 15th century and, in some areas, into the 16th. More churches were built in this manner than in any other style in history.
3) The Gothic was an outgrowth of the Romanesque.
论述简答题：
1. Why is the middle ages is called Age of Faith？
答：1) During the Medieval times there was no central government to keep the order. The only organization that seemed to unite Europe was the Christian church.
2) The Christian church continued to gain widespread power and influence.
3) In the Late middle ages, almost everyone in western Europe was a Christian and a member of the Christian Church. Christianity took the lead in politics, law, art, and learningfor hundreds of years.
4) It shaped people’s lives. That is why the middle ages is also called the “Age of Faith”.
2. What is the great significance of the Crusades?
答：1) The crusades brought the East into closer contact with the West. And they greatly influenced the history of Europe.
2) During the wars while many of the feudal lords went to fight in Palestine, kings at home found opportunities to strengthen themselves. Thus among other things, Crusades helped to break down feudalism, which, in turn led to the rise of the monarchies.
3) Besides, through their contact with the more cultured Byzantines and Moslems, the western Europeans changed many of their old ideas. Their desire for wealth or power began to overshadow their religious ideals.
4) The Crusades also resulted in renewing people’s interest in learning and invention. By the 13th century, universities had spread all over Europe. Such knowledge as Arabic numerals, algebra , and Arab medicine were introduced to the West.
5) As trade increased, village and towns began to grow into cities. And the rise of towns and trade in western Europe paved the way of the growth of strong national governments.
3. How did learning and science develop in the Middle Ages?
答：1) Charlemagne and Carolingian Renaissance:
A. He was crowned “Emperor of the Romans” by the pope in 800.
B. Carolingian Renaissance is derived from Charlemagne’s name in Latin, Carolus. The most interesting facet of this rather minor renaissance is the spectacle of Frankish or Germanic state reaching out to assimilate the riches of the Roman Classical and the Christianized Hebraic culture.
2) Alfred the Great and Wessex Centre of Learning:
A. He promoted translations into the vernacular from Latin works.
B. He also inspired the compilation of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles.
3) St. Thomas Aquinas and Scholasticism:
4) Roger Bacon and Experimental Science:
A. Roger Bacon, a monk, was one of the earliest advocates of scientific research.
B. He called for careful observation and experimentation. His main work was the Opus maius.
4. How did literature develop in the middle ages?
答：1) The epic was the product of the Heroic Age. It was an important and mostly used form in ancient literature. “National epic” refers to the epic written in vernacular languages—that is, the languages of various national states that came into being in the Middle Ages. Literary works were no longer all written in Latin. It was the starting point of a gradual transition of European literature from Latin culture to a culture that was the combination of a variety of national characteristics. Both Beowulf and song of Roland were the representative works of the National Epics.
2) Dante Alighieri and The Divine Comedy:
A. His masterpiece, The Divine Comedy, is one of the landmarks of world literature.
B. The poem expresses humanistic ideas which foreshadowed the spirit of Renaissance.
C. Dante wrote his masterpiece in Italian rather than in Latin.
3) Geoffery Chaucer and The Canterbury Tales:
A. The Canterbury Tales were his most popular work.
B. Most of the tales are written in verse which reflects Chaucer’s innovation by introducing into the native alliterative verse the French and Italian styles.
C. Chaucer is thus to be , regarded as the first short story teller and the first modern poet in English literature.
D. Chaucer and the Canterbury Tales were representative of the Middle ages.
5. What is the difference between the vernacular language used in the National epics and the vernacular language used by Mark twain?
答：1) The epic was the product of the Heroic Age. It was an important and mostly used form in ancient literature. “National epic” refers to the epic written in vernacular languages—that is, the languages of various national states that came into being in the Middle Ages. Literary works were no longer all written in Latin. It was the starting point of a gradual transition of European literature from Latin culture to a culture that was the combination of a variety of national characteristics. Both Beowulf and song of Roland were the representative works of the National Epics.
2) The vernacular language used by Mark twain refers to both local and colloq language used in the Mississippi area, with a strong characteristic of that region. Mark twain used vernacular language not only in dialogue, but also in narration.
3) His representative works Life on the Mississippi.
6. What were the power and influence of the Roman Catholic church in the Medieval times?
1) With a highly centralized and disciplined international organization from priests to Pope, the Roman Catholic Church seemed to be the only unity across the western Europe of the Medieval times. It developed a civilization based on Christianity and helped to preserve and pass on the heritage of the classical cultures by the official language of Latin.
2) with the Pope as the supreme head of all the Christian Churches of the western Europe, the Catholic (meaning universal) church received heavy taxes from lay people and various supports from nobles and kings. Church could remove any opponents political rights or even emperors, with the powerful symbol of the Inquisition, the Church court to punish heresy.
3) The Medieval Church was the center of the Europeans’ daily life and almost everyone became a member of the Church. People turned to the Church for comfort and spiritual guidance; the Church also was the center of holy communion, recreation, trade and communal activity.
4) Clergy then was the only literate class, so kings and nobles used them to implement important secular governmental duties.
5) The Church took the lead in politics, law, art, and learning throughout the “Age of Faith”. For example, Romanesque and Gothic arts were predominantly religious; in learning, it influenced greatly the western thinking with the monks’ work on copying and translating ancient books, the Church Fathers’ philosophy, Monasticism, Scholasticism and Experimental science.
6) originally for regaining the holy city of Jerusalem, the Church launched 200-year Crusades, which helped to bread down feudalism and enhanced the cultural contact between the West and the East.
第四章
填空题：
1. Renaissance started in ________ and ________ with the flowering of paintings, sculpture and architecture. Florence and Venice
2. In Renaissance literature of Italy, _______ was the representative poet. Petrarch
3. At the heart of the Renaissance philosophy was the assertion of _________. the greatness of man.
4. The idea of the greatness of man is reflected in __________ literature. Shakespeare’s
5. The national religion established after reformation in England was called _______. The church of England or The Anglican Church.
6. It was under the reign of _______ that reformation was successful in England. Henry Ⅷ
7. Montaigne was a French humanist known for his _______. “Essais”(Essays).
8. The representative novelist of Renaissance in Spain was __________ with his famous work_______, which marked European culture entry into a new stage. Cervantes Don Quixote
9. The Venus of Urbino is ___________ works. Titian
10. _______ translated the whole Bible with the vernacular language. Martin Luther
名词解释:
1. Renaissance
Generally speaking, Renaissance refers to the period between the 14th and mid-17th century. The word “Renaissance” means revival, specifically in this period of history, revival of interest in ancient Greek and Roman culture. Renaissance, in essence, was a historical period in which the European humanist thinkers and scholars made attempts to get rid of conservatism in feudalist Europe and introduce new ideas that expressed the interests of the rising bourgeoisie, to lift the restrictions in all areas placed by the Roman church authorities.
2. Reformation
The Reformation was a 16th century religious movement as well as a socio-political movement. It began as Martin Luther posted on the door of the castle church at the University of Wittenberg his 95 thesis. This movement which swept over the whole of Europe was aimed at opposing the absolute authority of the Roman Catholic Church and replacing it with the absolute authority of the Bible. The reformists engaged themselves in translating the Bible into their mother tongues.
3. Counter-Reformation
By late 1520 the Roman Catholic Church had lost its control over the church in Germany. The Roman Catholic Church did not stay idle. They mustered their forces, the dedicated Catholic groups, to examine the Church institutions and introduce reforms and improvements, to bring back its vitality. This recovery of power is often called by historians the Counter-Reformation.
论述简答题：
1. What are the Geographical Discoveries in the Renaissance?
答：The Renaissance was the golden age of geographical discoveries: by the year of 1600 the surface of the known earth was doubled.
1)Columbus: Columbus discovered the land of America. On his fourth voyage he explored the coast of Central America.
2)Dias: Dias was a Portuguese navigator who discovered the Cape of Good Hope in 1487.
3)Da Gama: Gama was a Portuguese navigator, who discovered the route to India round the Cape of Good Hope between the years of 1497 and 1498.
4)Amerig：Amerigo was the Italian navigator on whose honour America was named. His discovered and explored the mouth of the Amazon and accepted South America as a new continent.
2. What positive influence does the reformation exert on world culture?
答:1)The Roman Catholic Church was never the international court to which all rulers and states were to be morally responsible for.
2)Economically, peasants all over Europe had no need to pay a good amount of their gains to the Pope.
3)In educational and cultural matters, the monopoly of the church was broken.
4)In religion, Protestantism brought into being different forms of Christianity to challenge the absolute rule of the Roman Catholic Church.
5)In language, the dominant position of Latin had to give way to the national languages as a result of various translations of the Bible into the vernacular.
6)In spirit, absolute obedience became out-moded and the spirit of quest, debate , was ushered in by the reformists.
3. What contribution did the Renaissance make to the world culture?
答：1、The Renaissance created a culture which freed man to discover and enjoy the world in a way not possible under the medieval Church’s dispensation.
2、The Reformation dealt the feudal theocracy a fatal blow.
第五章
填空题：
1. The modern world, so far as mental outlook is concerned, begins in ________. the 17th century
2. _________ formed the basis of all modern planetary astronomy and led to Newton’s discovery of the laws of gravitation. Kepler’s Laws
3. “Knowledge is power.” By _____. Francis Bacon
4. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested. By _____. Francis Bacon
5. Leviathan is written by ________. Tomas Hobbes
6. The English Revolution is also called __________. Bourgeoisie Revolution.
7. In _______, the Bill of Rights was enacted by the English Parliament. 1689
8. There are two leaders in the English Revolution. _______ was the man of action and ________ the man of thought. Cromwell, Milton.
9. The best representative of French neoclassicism is ________. Molière
名词解释：
1. the laws of gravitation: the sun, the moon, the earth, the planets, and all the other bodies in the universe move in accordance with the same basic force, which is call gravitation.
2. Classicism
Classicism implies the revival of the forms and traditions of the ancient world, a return to works of old Greek literature from Homer to Plato and Aristotle. But French classicism of the 17th century was not conscious of being a classical revival. It intended to produce a literature, French to the core, which was worthy of Greek and classical ideals. This neoclassicism reached its climax in France in the 17th century.
3. Baroque Art
Baroque Art, flourished first in Italy, and then spread to Spain, Portugal, France in south Europe and to Flander and the Netherlands in the North. It was characterized by dramatic intensity and sentimental appeal with a lot of emphasis on light and colour.
论述简答
1. Why do we say the 17th century is a transitional period from middle ages to the modern times?
答：1) This advance began in science, in astronomy, physics and pure mathematics, owing to the work of Galileo, Kepler, Newton and Descartes.
2) The outlook of educated men was transformed. There was a profound change in the conception of men’s place in the universe.
3) The new science and philosophy gave a great push to the political struggle waged by the newly emerged class, the bourgeoisie, and other chasses.
4) The modern world, so far as mental outlook is concerned, begins in the 17th century.
2. What are the merits shared by the Great Scientists of 17th century？
答：During the 17th century, the modern Scientific method began to take shape. It emphasized observation and experimentation before formulating a final explanation or generalization. Copernicus、Kepler、Galileo、Newton and other scientists of the time shared two merits which favoured the advance of science.
1) First, they showed boldness in framing hypotheses.
2) Second, they all had immense patience in observation.
3) The combination of the two merits brought about fundamental changes in man’s scientific and philosophical thinking.
3. What is Baconian Philosophical system?
答：1) The whole basis of his philosophy was practical: to give mankind mastery over the forces of nature by means of scientific discoveries and inventions.
2) He held that philosophy should be kept separate from theology, not intimately be blended with it as in Scholasticism.
3) Bacon established the inductive method. Induction means reasoning from particular facts or individual cases to a general conclusion.. Deductive method emphasized reasoning from a known principle to the unknown and from the general to the specific.
4) In a word, to break with the past, and to restore man to his lost mastery of the natural world. This was what Bacon called the Great Instauration.
4. What is the difference between Hobbes and Locke in terms of nature Law?
答：For Locke, Nature Law, therefore, means a universally obligatory moral law promulgated by the human reason. Whereas for Hobbes it means the law of power, force and fraud.
5. What is the different between Tomas Hobbes and John Locke in terms of Social Contract?
1) John Lock’s Social Contract consists of :
A. Society is out of necessity, convenience and man’s own interest, and therefore, society is natural to man.
B. The institution of political society and government must proceed from the consent of those who are incorporated into political society and subject themselves to government.
C. Locke emphasized that the social contract must be understood as involving the individual’s consent to submit to the will of the majority and that the will of the majority must prevail.
D. Locke also believed that the ruler of government is one partner of the social contract. If he violates the social contract, then government is effectively dissolved. This idea was welcomed by the Americans during the American Revolution and the bourgeoisie revolution in England.
2 Tomas Hobbes’ Social Contract consists of:
A. It is necessary that there should be a common power or government backed by force and able to punish.
B. Commonwealth, in Latin, Civitas.
C. To escape anarchy, men enter into a social contract, by which they submit to the sovereign. In return for conferring all their powers and strength to the sovereign, men attain peace and security.
D. The powers of the sovereign must be absolute, and it is only be the centralization of authority in one person that the evil can be avoided.
E. As to the form of government, Hobbes preferred monarchy.
F. Government was not created by God, but by men themselves.
3) Although both Tomas Hobbes and John Locke used the term “social contract”, they differed fundamentally.
A. First, Hobbes argued men enter a social contract to escape the state of war, for, in his view, men are enemies and at war with each other. Locke argued men are equal and that they enter a social contract by reason.
B. Secondly, Hobbes argued that individuals surrender their rights to one man, the sovereign whose power is absolute. Locke argued that the individuals surrender their rights to the community as a whole. According to him, by majority vote a representative is chosen, but his power not absolute. If he fails to implement the people’s will, the people have the right to overthrow him.
4. What is the great significance of the English Revolution?
答：1、It was the first time that capitalism has defeated absolute monarchy in history.
2、The English Revolution marked that the modern times are approaching.
3、After the English Revolution the constitutional monarchy has come into being as well as the Bill of Rights. The Bill of Right established the supremacy of the Parliament and put an end to divine monarchy in England. The Bill of Rights limited the Sovereign’s power in certain important directions.
6. What are the characteristics of French classicism?
答：1) In the French classical literature, man was viewed as a social being consciously and willingly subject to discipline.
2) Rationalism was believed to be able to discover the best principles of human conduct and the universal principles of natural laws. Here Descartes provided the philosophical foundation for the French neoclassicism.
3) French classicism was fond of using classical forms, classical themes and values.
第六章
填空题：
1. ________was the first of the great French men of letters associated with the Enlightenment Montesquieu
2. The theory of the separation of powers was put forward by Montesquieu in his work _________. The Spirit of the Laws.
3. _______ is named as “Father of the modern English novel”. Fielding
4. ________ and _______are the chief representatives of German classicism. Schiller and Goethe
5. Nebular hypothesis was proposed by _________. Kant
6. Messiah was composed by_________. Handel
7. ________ edited the famous Encyclopédie. Diederot
名词解释
1、Enlightenment
Enlightement was an intellectual movement originating in France, which attracted widespread support among the ruling and intellectural classes of Europe and North America in the second half of the 18th century. It characterizes the efforts by certain European writers to use critical reason to free minds from prejudice, unexamined authority and oppression by Church or State. Therefore the Enlightenment is sometimes called the Age of Reason.
论述简答题：
1. What is the historical context for the Enlightenment to develop?
答：1) The American War of Independence of 1776 ended British colonial rule over that country and got victory in 1783 during which The Declaration of Independence was proclaimed.
2) The French Revolution broke out in 1789. The seizure of the Bastille. The first French Republic was born in 1792. the French Revolution gave birth to Declaration of the Rights of Man.
3) The Industrial Revolution the 1760’s — the 1830’s, beginning with the invention of the steam engine, rapidly changed the face of the world, and ushered in a completely new age.
2. What is the great significant of the Industrial Revolution?
答：1、The introdution of machines which reduced the need for hand labour in making goods.
2、The substitution of steam power for water, wind, and animal power.
3、The change from manufacturing in the home to the factory system.
4、New and faster method of transportation on land and on water.
5、The growth of modern capitalism and the working class.
第七章
填空题：
1. The literary and philosophical trend in the Romantic philosophy was represented by ________. Transcendentalism.
2. The theoretical groundwork for capitalism was Adam Smith’s _________. The wealth of Nations.
3. The sloganof French revolution was ___________. liberty, equality and universal brotherhood.
4. The Laker poets were _______, __________. Wordsworth, Coleridge
5. ___________ marked the beginning of the Romantic literature. Lyrical Ballads
6. ”If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind?” was written in _________.Ode to the West Wind by Shelly.
7. Shelly wrote a Lyrical drama _______ which is a parody written by Aeschylus. Prometheus Unbound
8. “Beauty is truth, truth beauty,”was written in ________. Ode on a Grecian Urn by Keats.
9. The death of _______ marked the end of Romanticism in England.
10. _______ was a best representative writer of Romanticism in France. Victor Hugo
11. The representative writers of Russia Romanticism were _________ and _____. Pushkin and Lermontov.
12. The most important contributions to the musical world by _______were in those musical forms associated with the growth of the sonata. Beethoven
13. Three B’s refers to ______, __________, and _________. Bach, Brahms, Beethoven.
14. Swan Lake was composed by _______. Tchaikovsky
名词解释：
1. Romanticism
Romanticism was a movement in literature, philosophy, music and art which developed in Europe in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Starting from the ideas of Rousseau in France and from the Storm and Stress movement in Germany. Romanticism emphasized individual values and aspirations above those of society. As a reaction to the industrial revolution, it looked to the Middle Ages and to direct contact with nature for inspiration. Romanticism gave impetus to the national liberation movement in 19th century Europe.
2. Byronic hero
Byronic hero was created by Byron in the Romantic period of the English literature. The Byronic hero is characterized by bravery and hard working spirit, such as Don Juan as the best representative of the Byronic hero.
3. Romantic Music
The Romantic Movement in music dominated the period about 1830 to about 1900. It was merely part of a general movement, which, all over Europe, especially in Germany and France, affected all arts. The Romantic Music is divided into two periods: The early Romantic Music represented by Beethoven, Schubert, Chopin, Schumann, and the later Romantic Music represented by Brahms and Tchaikovsky.
论述简答题：
1. What is the historical background for Romanticism to develop?
答：1) The Enlightenment brought about two revolutions and they caused Romanticism to rise.
2) First, the French revolution which broke out in 1789, established bourgeois democracy with its slogans of liberty, equality and universal brotherhood. Individualism prevailed.
3) Second, the Industrial Revolution, made possible by technological advances such as James Watt’s invention of the steam engine in 1764, brought unforeseen changes to each individual and society as a whole. Man’s thinking was fundamentally affected. New economic ideas were put forward by Adam Smith in his book The Wealth of Nations laid the theoretical groundwork for capitalism.
第八章
改错题：
1. The Manifesto of the Communist Party was written by Karl Marx himself. (错)
2. The term the survival of the fittest by Darwin. (错)
名词解释
1. Social Darwinism
For the term “natural selection” Spencer substituted the survival of the fittest.
2. Darwin’s theory of evolution
Darwin’s theory of evolution contains four major arguments:
A. new species appear.
B. those new species have evolved from older species.
C. The evolution of species is result of natural selection.
D. The natural selection depends on variations and the maintenance of variations in spite of the tendency of natural selection to eliminate unfit variants.
论述简答题：
1. What are the three sources of Marxism?
答：1) German Classical Philosophy and Marxist Philosophy:
Hegelian dialectics and Feuerbach’s materialism
2) English Classical Political Economy and Marxist Political Economy
3) Utopian Socialism and Scientific Socialism
Utopian was representative by Owen, Saint-Simon, and Fourier.
2. In what historical background did Marxism rise?
答：1) The Industrial Revolution beginning in the 18th century in Britain resulted in the rapid development of modern capitalism as well as the growth of the working class as a powerful independent political force.
2) The first economic crisis occurred in the 1820s, intensifying class conflict.
3) The working class movement developed from the early stage of destroying machines to mass strikes, political demonstrations and armed uprising.
What is the great significance of Darwinism?
答：1) On Biology: Darwin’s influence on the development of biology has been immeasurable. The immediate effect of the publication of On the Origin of Species was to stimulate research in different branches of knowledge..
Thomas Huxley
2) On Theology: Darwinism had a great impact on European Christian theologians.
Evolution and Ethics was translated in Chinese by Yan Fu and published under the title.
3) On Social Science: Herbert Spencer
For the term “natural selection” Spencer substituted the survival of the fittest.
A. Individual members of any species vary somewhat one from another in manifold characteristics, both structural and behavioural.
B. Individual variation is to some degree hereditary.
C. The Malthusian principle that organisms multiply exceeds the environment to carry them, with the consequence that many must die.
第九章
1. “A novel is a mirror walking along the road”is said by ______. Stendhal.
2. The novels contented in _________ mark the beginnings of French realism. the Human Comedy
3._ _____ has been called “the French Dickens” . Balzac
4. ________ is called “the first French realist” Flaubert
5. ______ was the founder of the naturalist school. Zola
6. In the French realism, _________ was the only short story teller. Maupassant
7. The first novel on the study of criminal psychology in the European literature is _____________ written by Dostoyevsky. Crime and Punishment
8. __________ are viewed as the fountainhead of much modern drama. Ibsen’s plays
9. ________ is of local colorism, based on the Mississippi. Mark Twain
10. ____________ is called “the Lincoln of American literature”and “Father of the American Novel”. Mark Twain
名词解释
1. Realism
In art and literature the term realism is used to identify a literary movement in Europe and the United States in the last half of the 19th century and the early years of the 20th century. But the practice of realism is very old and can be traced back to ancient times. This is fundamentally the difference between romanticism and realism. In Europe, the Realist movement arose in the 50s of the 19th century and had its origin in France. It centred in the novel and lay emphasis on fidelity to actual experience.
2. characteristics of Naturalism:
1) the naturalistic novel is not only a record of men and manners.
2) to the naturalists the novel is a demonstration of social law.
3) the language used by naturalists must be the actual language used by people.
3. Impressionism
Impressionism was a form of artistic expression in the 19th century. It was most pervasive in painting, but it was also found in literature and art. The term “impressionism”first appeared in 1874 in a newspaper review of an exhibition held in the studio by a group of young painters. It was taken directly from the title of Monet’s Impression: Sunrise.
4. Post-Impressionism
During the 2nd half of the 19th century, French impressionism created a dramatic break with the art of the past, and created a form of art that was to affect nearly every ambitious artist in the Western world. Van Gogh reacted against impressionism by using colour to suggest his own emotion and temperament.
论述简答题：
1. What is the historical background of Realism?
答：1) The realism movement was greatly influenced by the development of science in the 19th century. The age of realism was age of technological inventions.
2) The 19th century is the century of greatest change in the history of Western civilization. Germany and Italy, achieved their unification.
3) The Profound social dislocation and urbanpoverty brought about by the social and economic changes created severe problems to which the political and intellectual leaders of the 19th century reacted in a number of ways. One group was the liberals. Another group was the nationalists, A third group was the socialists.
第十章
填空题：
1. Greatest creative renaissance of the 20th century refers to _________. modernism.
2. The Waste Land is one of the representative works of _________. T. S. Eliot.
3. _________was the only women writer of stream of consciousness in British modernist literature. Virginia Woolf
4. ________ was named as the greatest poet of 20th century. W. B. Yeats
5. _________was the best representative of the Imagist movement. Ezra Pound
6. _________is of local colorism base on American South. William Faulkner
7. With the publication of _______, Hemingway became the spokenman for what Gertrude Stein had called “a lost generation”. The Sun Also Rise
名词解释
1. Modernism
Modernism was a complex and diverse international movement in all the creative arts, originating about the end of the 19th century. It provided the greatest creative renaissance of the 20th century. It was made up of many facets, such as symbolism, surrealism, cubism, expressionism, futurism, ect.
2. Oedipus Complex
Oedipus Complex is a Freudian term originating from a Greek tragedy, in which King Oedipus unknowingly killed his father and married his mother. Oedipus Complex was established by Freud.
3. The Lost generation
The Lost generation refers to a group of young intellectuals who came back from war, were injured both physically and mentally. They lived by indulging themselves in the Bohemian way of life. Their American dream was disillusioned. The best representative of the lost generation was Ernest Hemingway.
4. The Beat Generation
The Beat Generation in America refers to a group of American youngsters who refused to accept “respectability” and conventional social behaviour and who cultivated a rootless manner of living. The distinctive features of the Beat Generation is that they used a special slang language and loved jazz. The Beat Generation was represented by Ginsberg’s Howl and Jack Keroual’s on the road.
5. Angry Young Men
Angry Young Men was a term referring to a group of English writers who found themselves to be social misfits. They felt they were socially stateless. Even though they were university graduates. They were very sensitive to the undesirable things of the society. Angry Young Men was represented by John Osborne’s play Look Back in Anger and Amis’ novel Lucky Jim.
6. Existentialism
Existentialism is a philosophy that became a self-conscious movement in the 20th century. Its basic concern is human existence. A key concept of existentialism is that man is only what he makes of himself. Existentialism in literature was represented by Bernard Shaw’s problem plays. And Sartre’s Being and Nothingness.
7. The Theatre of the absurd
The Theatre of the absurd is a term referring to the works of some European, particularly French, playwrights of the 1950s and 60s. The word “absurd” originated from the works of Camus. The play writers of the Theatre of the absured employed many techniques used by the popular theatre such as: acrobatics. Their language is very often dislocated, with plenty of jargon, clichés and repetitions. The Theatre of the Absurd of represented by Beckett’s waiting for Godot.
8. Black Humour
Black Humour is a term derived from Black Comedy. Its origin can be traced back to Shakespeare’s time. But now the term is usually used to refer to some Western, especially American Post-World WarⅡ writers. Black humour is kind of desperate humour. In Black humour, man’s fate is decided by incomprehensible powers. Black humour was represented by Joseph Heller’s Catch-22.
9. Expressionism
Expressionist art is marked by the expression of reality by means of distortion to communicate one’s inner vision. The artists of this school used bright colours to bring out their pessimistic views on life (对生活的悲观态度). They showed a world of subconsciousness.
10. Futurism
The works of futurism portray the dynamic life of the 20th century. They glorify war, danger, machine age and attack museums and academies. They are interested in expressing the speed, progress and even the violence of modern live.
11. Dadaism
Dadaism created works that were anti-war, anti-modern life, and indeed, anti-art. When they held exhibitions the Dadaists sometimes encouraged the public to destroy their displays. They thought that the world had become insane and art too serious. One of the most important ideas to develop out of the movement was automatism—the automatic production of art.
12. Surrealism
Surrealism was a which combined the Dada idea of automatism with the psychology of Sigmund Freud. The surrealists felt that the job of the artist was to show an unconscious world.
论述简答
1.What are the Characters of modernism?
1) Modernism was a complex and diverse international movement in all the creative arts, originating about the end of the 19th century. It provided the greatest creative renaissance of the 20th century. It was made up of many facets, such as symbolism, surrealism, cubism, expressionism, futurism, ect.
2) Any break-away with the tradition can be classified into modernism.
3) Modernism looks at the men’s position in a fresh new way.
2. What are the specialties of modernism?
1) Modernism has been called “the tradition of the new”. It was characterized by a conscious rejection of established rules, traditions and convention.
2) Modernism has also been called the “dehumanization of art”. It pushed into the background traditional humanistic notions of the individual and society.
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