Chapter One Introduction to Intercultural Communication
Human being draw close to one another by their common culture, but habits and customs keep them apart. ---Confucian Saying
1. Definition ：Intercultural Communication is communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbol systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.
2. A short history of intercultural communication
2.1 The Burgeoning Period
The term “Intercultural communication” itself did not appear until Hall’s The silent language was published in 1959.
2.2 From 1960 to 1970
a. Two preventative books reflect the continuous efforts made by scholars in the field in the 1960’s:
b. Olive’s Culture and Communication (1962) and Smith’s Communication and Culture (1966)
c. The first college class in this field taught in 1966 at the University of Pittsburgh.
2.3 From 1971 to 1980
a. The 1970s witnessed rapid development in the field of intercultural communication.
b. In 1973, Samovar and Porter published Intercultural Communication: A reader
c. Indiana University awarded the first doctoral degree in intercultural communication.
d. Condon and Yousef’s Introduction to Intercultural Communication (1975)
2.4 From 1981 to the Present Time
a. Condon and Yousef’s stress on cultural value orientations and communication behavior parallels
b. Hofstede’s (1984) later work on cultural values
c .Hall’s writing on high-context and low-context cultures in Beyond Culture (1977).
d. Scholars in the early 1970s began to make their contributions in research and teaching by the 1980s.
3. Importance of Intercultural Communication
Three developments
3.1 The new technology
3.2 The new Population
3.3 The new Economic Arena
4. Studying Intercultural Communication
We have met the enemy, and he is us. ---Pogo
Three main obstacles:
First, Culture lacks a distinct crystalline structure; it is often riddled with contradictions and paradoxes.
Second, Culture cannot be manipulated or held in check; therefore, it is difficult to conduct certain kinds of research on this topic.
Third, we study other cultures from the perspective of our own culture, so our observations and our conclusions are tainted by our orientation.
5. Intercultural Communication
The main conceptions in intercultural communication:
Intercultural communication: Face-to-face communication between people from differing cultural backgrounds. Intercultural communication is defined as the extent to which there is shared interpersonal communication between members of the same culture.
5.1 Host and Minority Culture
The host culture is the mainstream culture of any one particular country.
Minority cultures: cultural groups that are smaller in numerical terms in relation to the host culture.
5.2 Subcultures (Co-cultures)
Subculture: a smaller, possibly nonconformist, subgroup within the host culture.
E.G. : Black American; Native American; Hispanic- American, Chinese-American, etc.
5.3 Multiculturalism
Multiculturalism is the official recognition of a country’s cultural and ethnic diversity (Hollway, 1992)
5.4 Cross-cultural Communication
1.Cross-cultural communication is face-to-face communication between representatives of business, government and professional groups from different cultures.
2.Diplomacy is one of the oldest forms of cross-cultural communication. Travel and tourism is a second form of cross-cultural communication.
3.A third form of cross-cultural communication unique to this has been the growth of the mass media.
Most recently, cross-cultural communication has been accelerated by cross-border information flows brought about by computerization.
5.5 Principles of Intercultural Communication
Condon has highlighted three areas as most problematic in intercultural exchange:
1.Language barrier
2.Different values
3.Different patterns of behaviors. (Condon & Saito, 1974)
5.6 Rationale
Worldwide interest in intercultural communication grows out of two assumptions:
First, changes in technology, travel, economic and political systems, immigration patterns, and population density have created a world in which we increasingly interact with people from different cultures.
Second, one’s cultural perceptions and experiences help determine how one sends and receives messages.
5.7 Approach
1.Fundamental to our approach to intercultural communication is the belief that all forms of human communication involve action.
2.This book takes a view of intercultural communication that is both pragmatic and philosophical.
5.8 Philosophy
First, it is to the advantage of all 5.5 billions of us who share the planet to improve our interpersonal and intercultural communication abilities.
Second, most of the obstacles to understanding can be overcome with motivation, knowledge, and appreciation of cultural diversity.
Activities: Right or Wrong?
• You need to learn to accept and like other cultures.
• You need to respect the validity of other cultures.
• Underneath, people are fundamentally the same.
• Culture is pervasive.
• I can do exactly what I want. My actions are independent of my culture.
• I don’t have total freedom of choice in my behavior.
• Culture and ethnicity are the same.
• If we have more contact, intercultural understanding will improve.
• Cultural worth is in the eye of the beholder.
• The perceptions of the individual relate to the perceptions of the group.
Chapter Two Language Use and Communication
• You cannot speak of ocean to a well-fog, ----the culture of a narrow sphere.
• You cannot speak of ice to a summer insect,----the creature of a season.
---Chang Tsu
Communication:
1.our ability to share our ideas and feelings
2.is the basis of all human contact.
1. Human Communication
1.1 Intentional and Unintentional Behavior
The first one describes communication as the process whereby one person deliberately attempts to convey meaning to another.
The second school of thought proposes that the concept of intentionality fails to account for all the circumstances in which
messages are conveyed unintentionally.
1.2 A Definition of Communication
Communication occurs whenever meaning is attributed to behavior or the residue of behavior.
1.3 The Components of Communication
A. The Source=> B. Encoding => C. The Message=> D. The Channel=> E. The Receiver =>F. Decoding => G. Feedback
2. Pragmatics: Language Use
2.1 The Problem
(1) We must first distinguish between using language to do something and using language in doing something.
e.g. Hello Goodbye Pass the salt. Please. How old are you? It’ s raining.
(2) What is (successful) linguistic communication? How does (successful) communication work?
2.2 The Message Model of Linguistic of Linguistic Communication
Speaker Hearer
Message Message
Encoding =» Sounds =» Decoding
2.3 Problems with the Message Model
First, Disambiguation
Since many expressions are linguistically ambiguous, the hearer must determine which of the possible meanings of an expression is the one the speaker intended as operative on that occasion.
eg1, flying planes can be dangerous.
eg2, A: We lived in Illinois, but we got Milwaukee’s weather.
B: Which was worse
Second, Underdetermination of reference
Third, underdetermination of communicative intent (by meaning)
Fourth, nonliterality
Fifth, indirection
Sixth, noncommunicative acts
2.4 An Inferential Approach to Communication
The basic idea:
linguistic communication is a kind of cooperative problem solving.
The Inferential Model of communication proposes that in the course of learning to speak our language we also learn how to communicate in that language, and learning this involves acquiring a variety of shared beliefs or presumptions, as well as a system of inferential strategies.
Presumptions: 1. Linguistic Presumption 2. Communicative presumption
3.Presumption of literalness 4.Conversational presumption
2.5 Inferential Theories versus the Message Model
Six specific defects:
1. The Message Model cannot account for the use of ambiguous expressions
2. Real world reference
3. Communicative intentions
4. Nonliteral communication
5. Indirect communication
6. Noncommunicative uses of language
3. The Characteristics of Communication
3.1 No Direct Mind-to-Mind Contact
It is impossible to share our feelings and experiences by means of direct mind-to-mind contact.
3.2 We can Only Infer
Because we do not have direct access to the thoughts and feelings of other human beings, we can only infer what they are experiencing inside their individual homes, to continue our analogy.
3.3 Communication Is Symbolic
Symbols, by virtue of their standing for something else, give us an opportunity to share our personal realities.
3.4 Time-Binding Links Us Together
3.5 We Seeks to Define the World
3.6 Communication Has A Consequence
3.7 Communication Is Dynamic
3.8 Communication Is Contextual
3.9 Communication Is Self-Reflective
4. The Brain Is an Open System
First, this concept of the brain alerts us that while each of us can learn new ideas throughout the life, what we know at any one instant is a product of what the brain has experienced.
Second, the notion of the brain as an open system reminds us that we can learn from each other.]
Third, because learning is a lifelong endeavor, we can use the information to which we are exposed to change the way we perceive and interact with the world.
5. We Are Alike and We Are Different
We are alike:
First, everyone realizes at some point that life is finite.
Second, each of us discovers somewhat early in life that we are isolated from all other human beings.
Third, all of us are thrown into a world that forces us to make choices.
Finally, the world has no built-in scheme that gives it meaning.
We are different:
First, the external world impinges on our nerve endings, causing something to happen with us.
Second, we think about what is happening by employing symbols from our past.
Activities: Right or Wrong?
• Sophistication is a subjective concept which is “ in the eye of the beholder”
• Realize that your language reflects and influences the way you se the world.
• All cultures impose some constrains on the body.
• Some language can’t distinguish between the present and the past.
• All cultures express politeness by using words like “please” and “thank you”.
• All cultures have standards for politeness and ways of being polite.
• All cultures are concerned about face. This is what motivates politeness.
• The concept of “face” is universal. Without it, there would be no politeness.
• Your way of showing that you are paying attention may be considered inappropriate by other cultures.
• All cultures require and value politeness, but the ways in which the politeness is achieved may vary significantly.
Chapter Three Culture and Communication
Culture is the medium evolved by humans to survive. Nothing in our lives is free from cultural influence. It is the keystone in civilization’s arch and is the medium through which all of life’s events must flow. We are culture. (Edward T. Hall)
Culture also determines the content and conformation of the messages we send. This omnipresent quality of culture leads hall to conclude that “there is not one aspect of human life that is not touched and altered by culture” (Edward T Hall,1977)
Culture and communication are so inextricably bound that most cultural anthropologists believe the terms are virtually synonymous. This relationship is the key factor to understanding intercultural communication.
Studying intercultural communication without studying culture would be analogous to investigation the topic of physics without looking at matter.
In this chapter,We shall explain why cultures develop, define culture, discuss the major components of culture, and link culture to communication by offering a model of intercultural communication that isolates the characteristics of culture most directly related to communication.
1. Culture is our invisible teacher
1.1 The basic function of communication
People maintain cultures to deal with problems or matters that concern them.-------William A Haviland
It serves the basic need of laying out a predictable world in which each of us is firmly grounded and thus enable us to make sense of our surroundings.
Malinowski: three types of needs:
Basic needs (food, shelter, physical protection)
Derived needs (organization of work, distribution of food, defense, social control)
Integrative needs (psychological security, social harmony, purpose in life)
1.2 Some Definitions of Culture
E. Adamson Hoebel and Everett Frost: culture is an “integrated system of learned behavior patterns which are characteristic of the members of a society and which are not the result of biological inheritance (Hoebel and Frost, 1976.6) For them, culture is not genetically predetermined or instinctive.”
First, as all scholars of culture believe, culture is transmitted and maintained solely through communication and learning, culture is learned.
Second, scholars who take the sweeping view believe, each individual is confined at birth to a specific geographic location and thus exposed to certain messages while denied others.
e.g. Geert Hofstede, a psychological perspective, defining culture as “the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one category of people from another”(Hofstede,1984). Both of these definitions stress the mental conditioning that culture experiences impose.
Daniel Bates and Fred Plog: culture is a system of shared beliefs, values, customs, behaviors, and artifacts that the member of a society use to cope with their world and with one another, and that are transmitted from generation to generation through learning.
This definition included not only patterns of behaviors but also patterns of thought (shared meaning that the member of a society attach to various phenomena, natural and intellectual, including religion and ideologies), artifacts (tools, pottery, house, machines, works of art), and the culturally transmitted skills and techniques used to make the artifacts (G.Bates, 1990, 7)
We define culture as the deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and material objects and possessions acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving. Culture can therefore include everything from rites of passage to concepts of the soul.
1.3 The Characteristics of Culture
A. Culture is innate; it’s learned.
1. Without the advantage of learning from those who lived before us, we should not have culture. You can appreciate, therefore, why we say that learning is the most important of all the characteristics of culture.
2. Bates and Plog note: whether we feed ourselves by growing yams or hunting wild game or by herding camels and raising wheat, whether we explain a thunderstorm by attributing it to meteorological conditions or to a fight among the gods—such thins are determined by what we learn as part of our enculturation (Bates and Plog,1990,19).
The term enculturation denotes the total activity of learning one’s culture. As Hoebel and Frost say, “conscious or un conscious conditioning occurring within that process whereby the individual, as child and adult, achieves competence in a particular culture”
3. Enculturation takes place through interaction (your parents kiss you and you learn about kissing – whom to kiss, when to kiss, and so on ), observation (you watch your father do most of the driving of the family car and you learn about gender roles – what a man does, what a woman does), and imitation (you laugh at the same jokes your parents laugh at and you learn about humor –it is funny if someone slips as long as he or she does not get hurt).
e.g. The mouth maintains silence in order to hear the heart talk. This saying expresses the value Belgians place on intuition and feelings in interaction.
He who speaks has no knowledge, and he who has knowledge does not speak. This saying from Japan reinforces the value of silence.
We concluded our description of the first characteristic of culture by reminding you of how our discussion directly relates to intercultural communication.
First, many of the behaviors we label as cultural are only automatic and invisible, but also engaged in without our being aware of them.
Second, common experience produces common behaviors.
B. Culture is transmitted from Generation to Generation
For culture to exist and endure, they must endure that their crucial message and elements are passed on.
Richard Brislin: if there are values considered central to a society that have existed for many years, there must be transmitted from one generation to another. (Brislin,1993,6). This idea supports our assertion that culture and communication are linked: it is communication that makes culture a continuous process, for once culture habits, principles, values, attitudes, and the like are “formulated” they are communicated to each individual.
The content of culture is what gets transferred from generation to generation.
e.g. American tell each generation to always look forward.
In China, the message is to look to the past for guidance and strength..
For Mexicans and Native Americans, the message is that cooperation is more important than the contest.
In Korea, the message is to respect and treasure the elderly.
C . Culture is based on Symbols
Our symbol—making ability enable us to both learn our culture and pass it on from individual to individual, group to group, and generation to generation.
The portability of symbols allows us to package and store them as well as transmit them. The mind, books, pictures, films, videos, computer disk and the like enable a culture to preserve what it deems to be important and worthy of transmission. Culture Is therefore historical and preservable.
D Culture is subject to Change
Cultures are dynamic systems that do not exist in a vacuum, so they are subject to change.
Cultures change through several mechanisms, the two most common are innovation and diffusion.
Innovation is usually defined as the discovery of new practices, tools, or concepts that many members of the culture eventually accept and that may produce slight changes in social habits and behaviors (Nanda, 1994, 26)
Diffusion is the borrowing by one culture from another and another way in which changes occurs
E. Culture is integrated
The nature of language makes it impossible to do otherwise, yet in reality culture functions as an integrated whole. This one aspect of culture has altered American attitudes, values, and behaviors.
F Culture is Ethnocentric
William Sumner: defined ethnocentrism as “the technical name for the view of things in which one’s own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it”(Sumner,1940,13)
Ethnocentric is the perceptual lens through which cultures interpret and judge each other.
Ethnocentric is found in every culture.
The logical extensions of Ethnocentric are detachment and division, which can take a variety of forms, including war.
e.g. East Indians looking down on the Pakistanis, the Japanese feeling superior to the Chinese, and ethnic rivalries causing strife between Serbs and Croats in the former Yugoslavia.
Why culture is such a puissant influence on all our lives?
The life history of the individual is first and foremost an accommodation to the patterns and standards traditionally handed down in his community. From the moment of his birth the customs into which he is born shape his experience and behavior. By the time he can he the little creature of his culture, and by the time he is grown and able to take part in its activities his impossibilities.
2. Language and Culture
Language and culture are inextricably linked, so that learning language means learning culture and vice versa.
With language and culture so inextricably linked, it is obvious that a language learner has more to do than master a new grammar and vocabulary. He must also learn what utterances are appropriate to particular situations.
3.Teaching Culture
In order to successfully integrate considerations of cultural appropriacy into language teaching, it is necessary that both teacher and students examine their own assumptions of what is natural. This mutual exploration, and the establishment of the relativity of what is considered to be natural, allows participants from both cultures to be both teachers and learners.
The mayor skills involved are the ability to suspend judgment, to analyze a situation as a native of that culture would analyze it, and choose acourse of action that is most culturally appropriate to the situation.
4. Forms of Intercultural Communication
Interracial communication occurs when source and receiver are from different races. The team race pertains to physical characteristics, such as color of skin, contour of head, shape of eyes, texture of hair, and the like. Interethnic communication occurs when the participants are of the same race but of different ethnic origins or backgrounds.Intercultural communication is communication between members of the same culture.
Two things should be obvious at this point in our description of the forms of intercultural communication.
First, many people hold membership in a number of different groups and co-cultures are also influenced by the norms and values of the dominant culture. As Julia Wood points out, these affiliations can be based on race, ethnic background, gender, age, sexual preference, and so forth (Wood, 1994, 157).
Second, although there might be minor distinctions among instances of interracial, interethnic, and intercultural communication. They all share the same processes and elements.
Two essential characteristics of culture can be applied to co-cultures.
First, the process by which culture dictates what one experiences.
Second, the process whereby culture, through carriers transmits these experiences so that they are learned by each new set of members-be they children or adults.
5. An Intercultural Communication (P119)
In this figure, three cultures are represented by three geometric shapes: Cultures A and B are similar to one another and are represented, respectively, by a square and an irregular octagon that resembles a square; and Culture C, which is quite different from Cultures A and B, is distinguished from both by its circular shape and its distance from Cultures A and B.
Culture’s influence on intercultural communication is a function of the dissimilarity of the cultures, which is indicated in the model by the degree of change in the pattern of the message arrows. The change that occurs in messages between Cultures A and B is much less than that in messages between Cultures A and C and between Cultures B and C. This is because Cultures A and B are similar. Hence, the repertories of social reality, communicative behaviors, and meanings are similar and the decoding process produces results compatible with the original content of the message. Because Culture C is quite different from Cultures A and B, the decoded message is different and resembles more closely the patterns of Culture C.
6. Elements of Intercultural Communication
These elements fall into three general groupings-perception, verbal processes, and nonverbal processes.
6.1 Perception
Marshall Singer says: “the process by which an individual selects, evaluates, and organizes stimuli from the external world” (Singer, 1987, 9) Perception is an internal process whereby we convert the physical energies of the world into meaningful internal experiences
First, people behave as they do because of the ways in which they perceive the world.
Second, one learns these perceptions, and the behaviors they produce, as part of one’s cultural experiences.
The three major socio-cultural elements that directly influence the meanings we attach to our perceptions are as follows: beliefs, values, and attitudes; world view; and social organization.
A Beliefs ,Values ,and Attitude Systems
Beliefs are subjective probabilities that some object or event is related to some other object or event or to some value, concept, or attribute.
For example, we have beliefs about religion (Jesus is the son of God), events (the Desert Storm war was necessary), other people (I know John is smart), and even ourselves (I am very witty).
Values are the evaluative components of our belief, value, and attitude systems. Values generally are normative in that they inform a member of a culture what is good and bad, right and wrong, true and false, positive and negative, and the like.
An attitude is a learned tendency to respond in a consistent manner to a given object of orientation. Our attitudes prepare us to react to the objects and events in our environment.
B． World View
World view is most important because it is a culture’s orientation toward such things as God, nature, life, death, the universe, and the other philosophical issues concerned with the meaning of life and existence.World view influences a culture at a very deep and profound level. Its effects often are quite subtle and do not reveal themselves in obvious ways. It might be helpful to think of a culture’s world view as a pebble tossed into a pond.
C Social Organization
The manner in which a culture organizes itself is reflected in that culture’s institutions. These institutions have a variety of configurations and can be formal or informal. Our schools, families, and governments all help determine how we perceive the world and behave in it.
The family is also important because by the time the other major cultural institutions influence the child, the family has already exposed it to countless experiences.
School, whether it be a private academic institution or a thatched hut, is another social organization that exerts its influence on perception and communication.
6.2 Verbal Processes
A . Verbal Language
Language is an organized, generally agreed upon, learned symbol system used to represent the experiences within a geographic or cultural community.
B . Patterns of Though
6.3 Nonverbal Processes
A Bodily Behavior
In Germany, women as well as men shake hands at the outset of every social encounter; in the United States, women seldom shake hands.
B Concept of Time
The Germans and the Swiss are even more aware of time than we are. For them, trains, planes, and meals must always be on time.
C Use of Space
Americans prefer to sit face-to-face or at right angles to one another, whereas Chinese generally prefer side-by-side seating.
Chapter 4: Culture Diversity in Perception
Warming Exercises
1.What are the different opinions about moon between cultures?
RE: American perception: they often see a man in the moon, many Native Americans perceive a rabbit.
Chinese perception: they claim that a lady Chang Er who lives on the moon is fleeing her husband.
Samoans’ perception: they report that a woman is weaving.
2.What does “V” symbolize in American and Australian culture?
Re: Americans think the gesture that is made with two fingers usually represents victory.
Australians equate this gesture with a rude American one which is usually made with the middle finger.
In both of these examples, the external objects (moon and hands) are the same, yet the response are different.
The reason is perception.
3.What is perception? Re: Perception is the means by which we make sense of our physical and social world.
4.Why must we learn perception in intercultural communication?
Re: Because our information and knowledge of external physical and social world are mediated by perceptual processes, perception is primary in the study of intercultural communication. As Trenholm and Jensen remind us, “culture is that makes social cognitions ‘social’”.
1. Understanding Perception
----the process of selecting, organizing ,and interpreting sensory data in a way that enable us to make sense of our world.
----based on beliefs, values, and attitude systems.
1) Beliefs are our convictions in the truth of something.—with or without proof.
2) An attitude is a combination of beliefs about a subject, feeling toward it ,and any predisposition to act toward it.
3) Values are enduring attitudes about the preferability of one belief over another.
Phi
2. Stages of Process of Perception
The first stage is recognition or identification, in which a configuration of light or sound waves is identified.
E.g. the perception of a car or music.
At the second stage, the interpretation and evaluation which has been identified take place.
The result of this process is not the same for all people, however, the process is learned therefore influenced primarily by culture.
How we interpret and evaluate what we hear is very much a function of our culture.
1.1 Culture and Perception
Culture primarily determines the meanings we apply to the stimuli that reaches us. Not everyone in a particular culture is exactly the same. There is diversity within cultures just as there is diversity between cultures.
American and Japanese are different in the credibility when they talk.
Here are some stories to illustrate the differences in credibility between American and Japanese.
American 1: Do you like the music? American 2: No. It’s too noisy.
American 1: Do you like the music? Chinese: It’s a bit noisy. Except for that, all is good.
As for Americans, credible people seem to be direct, rational, decisive, unyielding, and confident.
Once the US humor writer Dave Barry was in Japan. He had to fly from Tokyo to Osaka. So he went to the airport for the ticket.
DB: A ticket to Osaka please.
Ticket seller with smile: ah, ticket to Osaka, just a moment please.
DB: How much?
Ticket seller: It’s really good to take a train from Tokyo to Osaka. You can have some nice views on your way. Do you want a
train ticket?
DB: No. an airline ticket, please.
Ticket seller: ah… actually, it is good to take a bus. It is fully equipped, very comfortable. How about a bus ticket?
DB: No. an airline ticket please.
After some more of this kind of conversation, DB finally found out that all the airline tickets are sold out, and the ticket seller doesn’t want to tell him directly.
Japanese consider credible person as indirect, sympathetic, prudent, flexible, and humble.
In Japan, social status is another indicator of credibility, but in the United States, it is not the case
Ronald Adler and George Rodman note: “The same principle causes people from different cultures to interpret the event in different ways. Blinking while another talks maybe hardly noticeable to North Americans, but the same behavior is considered impolite in Taiwan.”
It is clear from these examples that culture strongly influences our subjective reality and that there are direct links among culture, perception, and behavior.
We will look at some cultural beliefs, values and patterns that influence both perception and communication.
1.2 Beliefs
Belief systems are significant to the study of intercultural communication because they are the core of our thoughts and actions.
Faith is like the radar that sees through the fog-the reality of things at a distancethat the human eye cannot see.
- Corrie Tem Boom
Americans prefer indirect communications. They always use indirect, unclear language to express themselves implicitly, instead of speaking out explicitly. Many of them think that say "no" to other's request is impolite. For example, in a business negotiation, when they decide to turn down their opponent's offer, most likely they will say:" I'll try my best" or "It's very difficult to do so".
Snake:
1. To Chinese, it’s slimy, we avoid them. if we believe that only through the handling of snakes and we find God (as do some religious sects), we handle them and run the risk of venomous bites.
2. CBS Evening News, New York Times .We believe they are the source of truth.
3. We believe Koran is an infallible source of knowledge and thus accept the miracles and promises that it sets forth.
4. In many Islamic cultures, women must keep their faces covered in public or at least cover most of their heads, leaving only as much of their face visible as is necessary to breathe, see, and engage in everyday activities such as eating and talking.
We must be able to recognize the fact that different cultures have different realities.
As we grow up in a culture, culture conditions us to believe what it deems to be worthy and true.
1.3 Values
：Value can be defined as an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to another.(Rokeach,1973)
：Understanding values helps us appreciate the behavior or other people and know how to treat them.
It also helps us understand our own behavior.
Value system provide us with a set of rules for making choices and reducing ambiguity. Value also possess a normative dimension. They specify what is good, bad, tight, or wrong, what ought to be or ought not to be, what is useful, useless, appropriate, or inappropriate.
：Value can be classified as primary, secondary, and tertiary.
Primary values: They specify what is worth the sacrifice of human life. E.g. collectivism in china. The attitude on collectivity is very different in different countries, or cultures. It is said that collectivity is like playing bridge for the American, poker for the Japanese while mah-jong for Chinese.
Secondary values: e.g. In the US the relief of the pain and suffering of others .
A friend of you is going through hard time, you can kindly offer your help by saying "if there is anything I can do, just let me know."
When one of your students failed an exam, you might probably say" this test isn't that important. Don't take it to heart.“
Tertiary values are the bottom of our hierarchy . An example of a tertiary value in the U.S. is hospitality to guests.
Today there are many charitable organizations which specialize in helping the weary traveler. Yet, the old tradition of hospitality to strangers is still very strong in the US, especially in the smaller cities and towns away from the busy tourist trails. "I was just traveling through, got talking with this American, and pretty soon he invited me home for dinner — amazing."American hospitality begins at home-especially when it involves food. Most Americans agree that good home cooking beats restaurant food any day. When invited for a meal, you might ask, "Can I bring anything?" Unless it's a potluck, where everyone brings a dish, the host will probably respond, "No, just yourself."
For most informal dinners, you should wear comfortable, casual clothes. Plan to arrive on time, or else call to inform your hosts of the delay. During the dinner conversation, it's customary to compliment the hostess on the wonderful meal. Of course, the biggest compliment is to eat lots of food!
2. Dominant American Cultural Patterns
1) Cultural Patterns
----It’s a useful umbrella term that allows
us to talk about these orientations collectively instead of separately – cultural patterns – which refers to the conditions that contribute to the way in which people approach life, that is, all aspects of their cultural heritage.
2) Six Key Patterns in the Dominant American Culture
The relative importance of values within a society: primary, secondary, & tertiary.
a. Individualism is the primary value and it is the most important.
b. The secondary value: e.g. The relief of the pain and suffering of others.
c. The tertiary values are at the bottom of our hierarchy. e.g. To be hospitality to guests.
A Individualism
“Anybody who is any good is different than anybody else.”
----Broadly speaking, individualism refers to the doctrine that the interests of the individual are or ought to be paramount, and that all values, rights and duties originate in individuals. It emphasizes individual initiative, independence, individual expression, and even privacy.
B Equality
“All men are created equal.” “ A cat may look at a king.”
----Social status not the same, but rights should be equal.
Here we can see the equality of American culture.
● C.O.R.E. is the acronym for the Congress of Racial Equality. Founded in 1942, C.O.R.E is the third oldest and one of the "Big Four" civil rights groups in the United States.
From the protests against "Jim Crow" laws in the 40's to the "Sit-ins" in the 50's, the "Freedom Rides" in the 60's, the cries for "Self-Determination" in the 70's, "Equal Opportunity" in the 80's, community development in the 90's, to the current demand for equal access to information, C.O.R.E has championed true equality.
● As the "shock troops" and pioneers of the civil rights movement, CORE has paved the way for the nation to follow.
● C.O.R.E's National Headquarters is located in New York City. From there a network of local affiliates and chapters radiate across the United States, parts of Africa, the Caribbean, Europe, Central and South America.
Membership in C.O.R.E is open to anyone who believes that "all people are created equal" and is willing to work towards the ultimate goal of true equality throughout the world.
C. Materialism
“In the American metaphysic, reality is always material reality.” — Lionel Trilling
“Money talks.” “Money makes the mare go.” “A man without money is no man at all.”
The premium they place on materialism is often at the core of their ethnocentric attitude that other cultures should try to duplicate their standard of living.
American people’s personal consuming expenses reaches climax in the recent 4 years.
D .Science and Technology
Very broadly, the emphasis upon science and technology reflects the values of the rationalistic-individualistic tradition that is so deeply embedded in western civilization.
American invents the slippers which can Come out light.
E Progress and Change
A rolling stone gathers no moss. Variety is the spice of life.
F Activity and Work
----Work-directed and disciplined activity in a regular occupation is a strong pattern in American society.
----One of the most important distinctions in American life is that between work and play.
American Culture Is Unique
American culture is unique because it is nurtured, formed and developed under certain conditions, which are characteristically American.
＊ the hard environment
＊ ethnic diversity
＊ plural religion
1. Rough Environment
The early immigrants who were English Puritans settled down in northeast part of American. The environment there was very rough but they believed the poor land could purify their mind so they chose the place along the coast. From 1607 to 1892, frontiers were pushed further west. The American frontier consisted of the relatively unsettled regions of the United States, usually found in the western part of the country.
The frontiersmen looked for a land of rich resources and a land of promise, opportunity and freedom. Actually they looked for a better life. So individualism, self-reliance, and equality of opportunity have perhaps been the values most closely associated with the frontier heritage of American.
2. Ethnic Diversity
The population of the United States includes a large variety of ethnic groups coming from many races, nationalities, and religions. People refer to the United States as "melting pot "and the dominant people are British. American is made up of WASP+MM, that is, White, Anglo Saxon, Protestants plus Middle Class and Male.
In history, people from different countries in the world rushed to American three times. They brought their own culture to American and later on different cultures were mixed together. Thus the unique American culture is formed, a common cultural life with commonly shared values.
3. Plural Religion
The fundamental American belief in individual freedom and the right of individuals to practice their own religion is at the center of religious experience in the United States. The great diversity of ethnic backgrounds has produced religious pluralism; almost all of the religions of the world are now practiced in the United States.
Christianity is the dominant religion in American and Protestant is predominate. Churches are independent and American religion is no longer religion seculars.
The institution permits the practice of religion and the political power is separate form religion. So there are more religions in American than in other countries.
4. Current Influence
Nowadays, we can see the continual influence of the three elements in the current American society. American family is typically parents and their unmarried children. Many Americans live in mobile homes whose homes are built with wheels. They can be moved.
The people in America have a very strong desire to start a new life in a new place. The courage to try something new has been an American characteristic.
American democracy means majority rule, but it also means protection of minority rights.
There are certain freedom which the United States promises to all its citizens and members of minority group cannot be denied these rights by a vote of the majority. Americans also like to be involved in many challenge activities and sports to show their adventurous spirits. All of these are affected by the heritage of the American history.
American Wine Culture
One typical example of the emergence of a wine culture in the US is the fact that wine festivals have sprung up from coast to coast. What is distinctive to American wine festivals is that they appear in locations and on dates having nothing to do with wine production.
Most wine festivals are targeted at the wealthy and consist of hours of lectures, seminars and structured "blind tasting" whereby participants build skills at identifying wines by smell, coloration着色 , and taste.
Various terms and phrases have emerged to denote the typical sensory experiences that are basic to the induction into American wine culture.
Visual appearance of a wine: "straw-colored, cloudy, casting amber琥珀色" etc.
Olfactory 嗅觉的 properties of a wine:
"fig少许 and dough 生面团 aromas, cherry樱桃 bouquet酒香 , rich on the nose" etc.
Oral sensations of a wine: “Very restrained but broad and soft on the palate味觉 ; lean and citric but with depth to the flavors and subtle texture that carries the flavor through to an impressively long finish, smooth and harmonious with a crisp acidity酸度 and long on the finish."
“Wine talk" has gained more and more popularity among the American people. And American wine culture has drawn more and more attention in America.
In America, if you don’t hang out at bars or pubs, you are outdated now. here, we’ll talk about the bacchanalian culture in pubs.
Manners: you can guzzle牛饮, swig豪饮, gulp down or quaff大口的干杯, sip啜饮 and tipple慢慢的品尝 as you like.
Blessings: Cheers. Cheerio! (British.) To your health! For us!
Attentions: When you are going to pub, choose the licensed one and take your ID card with you, don’t stay too late and do not be taken for a drive of strangers.
Varieties of Wine
Mixed drinks：Liquor，It includes brandy, gin杜松子酒 . whiskey Sweet wine甜酒 Soft drinks
1. beer
1. What is the oldest active brewery啤酒厂 in America?D.G. Yuengling & Son has been brewing beer at Pottsville, Pennsylvania since 1829, ranking it as America's oldest brewery. Founder David Yuengling carved aging cellars deep into the rocky hillside on which the brewery is perched.
During prohibition, the company made near beer (de-alcoholized beer) and dairy products. Today, the brewery is still in the hands of the Yuengling family, and is experiencing its greatest success yet.
2. What brewery was America's largest in 1895? The Pabst Brewing Company of Milwaukee was the nation's largest brewery in 1895. (Anheuser-Busch was number 2, and Schlitz was number 3.) At the helm of the Pabst brewing empire was the colorful Captain Frederick Pabst, a former Lake Michigan steamship captain.
His vision and relentless drive for expanding markets carried Pabst to the top. Near the end of the 19th century, the Pabst Brewery was turning out more than one million barrels of beer annually, and using some 300,000 yards of blue ribbon each year to tie around the bottle necks of its popular Pabst Blue Ribbon brand. Though Pabst no longer brews in Milwaukee, its flagship "PBR" remains an American favorite still today.
3. What was the first American brewery to sell beer in cans?In 1935, the G. Krueger Brewing Company of Newark, New Jersey became the first brewer to market beer in steel cans. In that year, only about 25 percent of beer was packaged in bottles and cans. Today, however, about 90 percent of America's beer production is consumed from bottles and cans.
If you are not a good drinker, you can order some soft drinks. But if you are a good drinker, you can just say:“ Give me a keg三十加仑以下的小桶 of beer.” you can drink them under table(千杯不醉) and to drink like fish(喝个不停). No matter how busy you are, it’s happy to have a drop from time to time and to relax for a while.
The consumption and appreciation of wine among Americans has gradually given rise to a distinctively Americans wine culture. American wine enthusiasts employ their own language, advocate their own behavioral codes and engage in ceremonies or festivals that celebrate the fine things in life.
4. How To Taste Beer:
When analyzing a beer, you can't just swill it down, burp and say "it's great" or "it's crap." And, even though tasting is an individual art, there are a few steps, which if followed, will take your beer tasting to a blissful level.
LookTake pause and marvel at its greatness before you partake of it. Raise the beer in front of you, but don't hold your beer to direct light as this will dilute its true color. Describe its color, its head and its consistency稠度
AgitateSwirl your beer, gently in the glass. This will pull out aromas, slight nuances, loosen & stimulate carbonation and test head retention
Smell90-95% of what you experience is through you sense of smell. Breathe through your nose with two quick sniffs, then with your mouth open, then through your mouth only (nose and mouth are connected in the experience). Let olfaction guide you. Agitate again if need be, and ensure that you are in an area that has no overpowering aromas.
TasteNow sip the beer. Resist swallowing immediately. Let it wander and explore your entire palate. Let your taste buds speak. Note the mouth feel, the consistency of the liquid's body, and breathe out during the process of tasting. Try to detect any sweetness, salty flavors, acids and general bitterness. Explain what they are, or what they are similar to.
● On average, Americans consume more than 37 gallons of alcohol a year per person.
● In most of the country ( with the exception of Utah, which is full of teetotalling Mormons摩门教徒), it is perfectly legal and acceptable to have a drink.
● In some places one can drive up to a window and buy beer, even though drinking it in the car is illegal. In others places heavily-guarded Sate Stores are only open during office hours and offer a minimal selection.
● Root beer, in spite of its name, is not alcoholic. It’s the American equivalent of ginger beer, but flavored with sassafras and sarsaparilla roots.(擦树根和菝萕根)。Even Americans acknowledge that this is an acquired taste; other, more sensible, nationalities won’t touch it.
● In America, most beer is designed to be drunk in huge quantities, while watching sporting events, during weather hotter than 90°F. hence the need for a high water content, to promote sweat, and a very low serving temperature, to prevent heatstroke.
● In the past five to ten years, however, a beer revolution has shaken America's brewing tradition to its foundations. Loosening of local alcohol laws has allowed some restaurants to brew their own beers on the premises, and nearly every city with any pretensions has at least one ‘brewpub’.
● As a result, the number of breweries has more than doubled since 1987. this trend does lead to occasional lapses such as Christmas cranberry Lager or Pumpkin Stout-but this is America.
American Breakfast
● Breakfast has an honored place in the American diet.
● Breakfast, which is highly regional, includes cold cereal with milk, bacon, coffee, oatmeal, sausage, ham, eggs, scrapple, fried corn meal mush, maple syrup, coffee, waffles, corned beef hash, pancakes and grits.
● Grits are a quintessentially American dish.
● Southerners adore them. Northerners think they’re the reason the South lost the Civil War. Starting somewhere around Maryland an invisible line crosses the country: below it grits are considered essential for life, while above it they’re banned as being unfit for human consumption.
Restaurants
● The most typical American restaurants offer no service at all. In 1954, Ray Kroc bought the rights to the McDonald brothers’ hamburger stand and began selling franchises特许. There are now more than 23,000 McDonald’s worldwide.
● The McDonald’s recipe for success involves serving a very limited menu of popular foods, mainly hamburgers, French fries and milkshakes奶昔 , minimizing labor cost by breaking preparation down into quantified routine tasks using disposable packages to eliminate the cost of dish- washing, pricing the product affordably, and maintaining strict quality control.
● A Big Mac in Boston is indistinguishable from the same sandwich in Bangkok. It is so standardized that the Economist of London publishes an annual Big Mac Index to demonstrate the relative purchasing power of various currencies.
Some of the best and least expensive restaurants in the country are the small, independent operations run by recent immigrants. Cambodians, Chinese Japanese, El Salvadorians, and Ethiopians bring their native dishes to add to the united states’ already heady culinary烹调的 stew.
The great melting pot occasionally produces some odd restaurant bedfellow伙伴 , such as Cuban – Vietnamese, Mex- Italian, or Hungarian- Puerto Rican.
Coffee or Tea
● Americans drinks coffee. Tea in most parts of the country means iced tea, specifically, sweetened iced tea with lemon.
● Ready- made hot tea is never served; Americans believe that when a restaurant pours boiling water directly over the tea in the kitchen it violates the customer’s constitutional right to control the tea’s strength.
Amusement Parks
● Top 10 most popular theme & amusement parks in America.
1. Walt Disney World 2.Disneyland3.Universal Studio Hollywood4.Knott's Berry Farm5.Sea World of California
6.Sea World of Florida7.Six Flags Magic Mountain六旗魔术山 8.Cedar Point杉点乐园
9.Santa Cruz Beach Board Walk 10.America has been known for its wide sandy beaches, its boat houses and hotels, its boardwalk, its fable amusement parks and freak shows. Those spots attract hundreds of thousands of pleasure seekers.
Arts
The academy awards are annual awards of merit given since 1927 to film actors, artists, directors, cinema photographers, and technicians by the academy of motion picture arts and sciences.
Recorded music is one of the world’s most widely distributed industrial products. And no two rock and roll groups can be better than the beetles and the rolling stone.
Kingdom on the Wheels Ford Lincoln Mazda
More conventional drivers satisfy themselves with bumper保险杆 stickers that reveal their educational background, political opinions, or marital status, from “Yale School of Law” to “If you’re rich, I’m single”.
● Car, house and garden are essential elements of the American dream.
● The average American household has 1.8 vehicles.
● Most cars are used for daily commuting; less than 6% of the American workforce uses public transportation to get to work.
Walking is un-American. Whenever possible, Americans drive and if necessary, they can wait for a long time to get a parking place close to their destination.
● A car is not just like an American's castle, it’s a suit of clothes, a haircut, a display of one’s personality to the world. Car owners not only select vehicles that reflect this, from red Mazda Miatas to long black Mercedes, they also customize them in innumerable ways.
Sports
● A polyglot通数国语言 , varied country like the U.S. needs a national lingua franca, something that allows the members of any minority subculture to communicate on a friendly basis with people from vastly different backgrounds. Sport is this language.
● Major cities have a professional football, baseball, basketball, or hockey team, while smaller towns make do with a high school, college, or minor league team. The sports year may be divided roughly into baseball in summer, football in autumn, basketball in spring, and hockey forever.
Every American football and basketball team, from high school to the professional league, attract young women who wave pompoms and lead the fans in various cheers. Just as every American boy yearns to be a football quarterback, so many girls yearns to head the cheerleading squad.
NBA Notable Teams: Chicago, BullsUtah, Jazz, Los Angeles, Lakers New York, Knichs Boston, Celtics Houston, Rockets
Major Annual Event : The NBA playoffs and the NBA Finals.
Today’s basketball greats: O’Neal. Shaquille Nash. Steve
Universities
was founded in 1701. In 1716 the school moved to New Haven and, with the generous gift by Elihu Yale of nine bales of goods, 417 books, and a portrait and arms of King George I, was renamed Yale College in 1718. Yale is mostly famous for its law school. According to the US News and World Report, only 6.2% of its nearly 4000 applicants are accepted to the law school. Many of the Presidents of the United Stated of America, including George W. Bush, is graduated from Yale.
Colombia University
locates in Manhattan, New York City and is a member of the Ivy League. 38 Nobel Prize winners are graduated from Colombia University.
Princeton University
is the fourth-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and one of the eight Ivy League universities. Princeton is constantly ranked the top three universities in the United States. Among its outstanding body of faculty, Albert Einstein has changed the landscape of modern physics.
Founded in 1861, MIT is the world leader in science and technology research. Till 2005, 61 current or former members of the MIT community have won the Nobel Prize, 14 of them in the last five years.
Harvard University
is a private university in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Founded on Sept. 8, 1636, Harvard is the oldest institution of higher learning in the United States and a member of the Ivy League. Harvard has the world’s largest university library collection and the largest finicial endowment of any academic institution, standing at $25.9 billion as of 2005.
Founded in 1891, Stanford is a private university located approximately 37 miles (60 kilometers) southeast of San Francisco. Stanford lies at the heart of the Silicon Valley, both geographically and historically.
UC Berkeley is the oldest campus of the ten-campus University of California system.As well as the most prestigious one, Berkeley is the best public university in the United States. Besides its academic excellence, Berkeley is also famous for its student activism and rebellious history.
3. Diverse Cultural Patterns
• 3.1 Hall’s High- and Low-Context Communication
• 3.2 Hofstede’s Value Dimensions
• 3.3 Kluckhohn, Kluckhohn, and Strodtbeck’s Value Orientations
• 3.4 Orientations
3.1.Hall’s High- and Low-Context Communication
(1) Context
It’s the information that surrounds an event; it is inextricably bound up with the meaning of the event.
In the process of communication, the process of meaning endowing, decoding relates to the communication context closely.
However, because there are differences among cultures, the degree in which the process of encoding and decoding or the process of meaning endowing rely on the communication context would alter in different cultures, and relative importance of various elements in communication context is different.
(2) High-context Culture & Low-context Culture
High-context Culture: It’s a kind of culture in which people are very homogeneous with regard to experiences, information networks, and the like.
Low-context Culture: it’s a kind of culture in which the population is less homogeneous and therefore tends to compartmentalize interpersonal contacts.
M.W.Lustig & J.Kester
强语境文化 弱语境文化
外显,明了 内涵,含蓄
明码信息 暗码信息
较多的言语编码 较多的非言语编码
反应外露 反应很少外露
(圈)内(圈)外灵活 (圈)内(圈)外有别
人际关系不紧密 人际关系密切
低承诺 高承诺
时间高度组织化 时间处理高度灵活
(3) High-context Communication & Low-context Communication
High-context Communication : It’s a kind of communication in which most of the information is already in the person; while very little is in the coded, explicitly transmitted part of the message.
Low-context Communication: It’s just the opposite of high-context communication. It’s the mass of information that rested
i n the explicit code.
3.2 Hofstede’s Value Dimensions
(1) Individualism-Collectivism
Individualism
Broadly speaking, individualism refers to the doctrine that the interests of the individual are or ought to be paramount, and that all values, rights and duties originate in individuals. It emphasizes individual initiative, independence, individual expression, and even privacy.
Collectivism
----It’s characterized by a rigid social framework that distinguishes between in-groups and out-groups.(high-context culture). People count on their in-group(relatives,clans, organizations)to look after them, and in exchange for that they believe they owe absolute loyalty to the group.
One man is no man. Many hands make light work. United we stand, divided we fall. Unity is strength
Collectivism means greater emphasis on
a. the views, needs, and goals of the in-group rather than oneself;
b. Social norms and duty defined by the in-group rather than behavior to get pleasure;
c. Beliefs shared with the in-group rather than beliefs that distinguish self from in-groups;
d. Great readiness to cooperate with in-group members.
“If one wants to establish himself, he should help others to establish themselves at first.”
* Uncertainty Avoidance
Irish proverb “Life should be a dance, not a race.”
“He who risks nothing, gains nothing.”
* Power Distance
high power distance
Respect is greater from a distance.
low power distance
People believe that they are close to power and should have access to that power.
* Masculinity and femininity
Masculinity It is a sad house where the hen crows louder than the cock.
Femininity Gender roles are more fluid. Independence and androgynous behavior are the ideal, and people sympathize with the unfortunate.
----Although we speak of these orientations as if they are separate entities, it is important to keep in mind that all people and cultures have both dispositions, yet one orientation seems to dominate.
Unit Five Non-verbal Communication
1. Objectives
2. Functions
3. Characteristics
4. Structure
5. Question
6. Further Reading
浣溪沙 李清照绣幕芙蓉一笑开，斜偎宝鸭亲香腮，眼波才动被人猜。一面风情深有韵，半笺娇恨寄幽怀，月移花影约重来。
1.Understand the functions and characteristics of nonverbal communication.
Nonverbal Communication All intentional and unintentional stimuli between communicating parties, other than the spoken word, are considered to be nonverbal communication.
More specifically, nonverbal communication involves those humanly and environmentally generated stimuli in a communication setting that convey potential nonlinguistic message values to the interactants.
Functions: Repetition , replacement, emphasize ,contradiction , regulation
Characteristics : less Systematized, culture-bound, ambiguous
2.The structure of nonverbal communication
Kinesics the study of body movements and activities in human communication
Proxemics the study of how human beings and animals use space in communication process
Para-language the study of voice or the use of vocal signs in communication
Chronemics the study of how we usetime in communication
Kinesics Emblems: kinesic cues that have direct verbal counterparts.
Illustrators: nonverbal messages that are directly tied to speech and that are used to describe, reinforce, or supplement what is said verbally.
Regulators: nonverbal messages used to influence or control other’s behaviors.
Affect displays: bodily and facial expressions that convey our feelings and emotions.
Adaptors: body movements that usually occur when we are in anxious situations.
Four most common body activities
1.Facial Expressions
2.Eye Contact Oculesics --- the study of eye contact in communication process
3.Hand Gestures
4..Touch Baptics --- the study of how we use touch in communication
Three Kinds of Space
Fixed-feature Space refers to those unmovable structural arrangements around us.
Semifixed Feature Space is the arrangement of movable objectsthat we don’t move unless a special need arises.
Informal Space refers to the distance between the interactants in communication.
Four Categories of Paralinguistic Cues
Voice Quality: pitch range, quality of articulation, rhythm, resonance, pace
Vocal Characterizers: nonverbal voices that reveal our physical and emotional state.
Vocal Qualifiers: variations of our voice that convey our emotions and personality.
Vocal Segregates: those voice noises that seem not to serve any function but to interfere with the flow of speech.
Three Categories of Time
Formal Time represents the classification of time into different units that can be used to measure time itself.
Technical Time is useful and meaningful only to those in a specific profession.
Informal Time
Two ways to study the concept of time
Present, Past, and Future Time Orientation
Monochronic &Polychronic Time Orientation
Characteristics of M-time
1. preset schedules dominate interpersonal relations;
2. appointment times are rigid;
3. people handle one task at a time;
4. breaks and personal time dominate personal ties;
5. time is inflexible and tangible;
6. personal time and work time are clearly separated;
7. organizational tasks are measured by activities per hour or minute.
Characteristics of P-time
1. Interpersonal relations supercede preset schedules;
2. Appointment time is flexible;
3. People handle many tasks simultaneously;
4. Personal ties dominate breaks and personal time;
5. Time is flexible and fluid;
6. Personal time and work time are not clearly separated;
7. Organizational tasks are measured as part of overall
8. organizational goal.
How are the cultures and nonverbal behaviors interrelated???
Nonverbal behaviors are dictated by the communicator’s culture.
Culture determines the appropriate times to display nonverbal behaviors, emotions in particular.
Five dimensions
contact & low contact
individualism & collectivism
masculinity & femininity
power distance
high context & low context
Five-step model for the development of nonverbal skills
assess our learning needs
observe similar situations
use appropriate resources
reach tentative conclusions
reevaluate our conclusions as necessary
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