Chapter 6
Pragmatics: it can be defined as the study of language in use. it deals with how speakers use language in ways which cannot be predicted from linguistic knowledge alone, and how hearers arrive at the intended meaning of speakers.
Deixis: in all languages there are many words and expressions whose reference depends entirely on the situational context of the utterance and can only be understood in light of these circumstances. This aspect of pragmatics is called deixis, which means “pointing” via language.
Reference: in pragmatics, the act by which a speaker or a writer uses language to enable a hearer or reader to identify something is called reference.
Inference: an inference is an additional information used by the hearer to connect what is said to what is meant.
Anaphora: the process where a word or phrase refers back to another word or phrase which is used in earlier text or conversation is called anaphora.
Presupposion: a spesker said to you “ when did you stop beating your wife”,the speaker has the assumption that you used to beat your wife and no longer do so. Such assumptions are called presupposion.
Speech act theory: it was proposed by J.L.austin and has been developed by j.r. searle. Basically, they believe that language is not only used to inform or describe things, but to “do” things, perform acts.
Illocutionary acts: representatives directives commissives expressives declarations
Indirect speech act: whenever there is an indirect relationship between a structure and a function, we have a indirect speech act.
The cooperative principle: H.P.grice belives that there must be some mechanisms governing the production and comprehension of the utterances. He suggests that there is a set of assumptions guiding the conduct of conversation. This is what he calls the CP. To put it simply, the cp means that we should say what is true in a clear and relevant manner.(quality quantity relation manner)
Conversatonal implicatures: a kind of extra meaning that is not literally contained in the utterance.
The six maxims of the PP
(tact generosity approbation modesty agreement sympathy)
Chapter 7
Discourse：language above the sentence or above the clause.
Discourse analysis: is also called discourse linguistics and discourse studies, or text linguistics. It is the study of how sentences in spoken and written language form a larger meaninful units such as paragraphs, interviews, conversations ,etc.
Given information: it is the information that the addresser believes is known to the addressee.
New information: it is the information that the addresser believes is not known to the addressee.
Topic: the topic represents what the utterance is about and it is the one that the speaker decides to take as the starting point.The comment is what is said about it.
Cohesion: it refers to the grammatical and lexical relationships between the different elements of a discourse.
Cohesive devices include reference{endophora(anaphora and cataphora)and exophora}, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction(coordinators and subordinators) and lexical cohesion(repetition synonym and superordinate).
Discourse markers: expressions that are commonly used in the initial position of an utterance and are syntactically detachable from a sentence.
conversational analysis: the analysis of natural conversation in order to discover what the linguistic characteristics of conversation are ans how conversation is used in oordinary life is called conversational analysis.(adjacency pairs, preference structure and presequences)
Adjacency pairs:a sequence of two related utterance by two different speakers. The second part is always a response to the first.
Presequences: the opening sequences that are used to set up some specific potential actions are called presequences.
赞同
Chapter8
Sociolinguistics: when we study the language in relation to society. It is called sociolinguistics.
Language varieties: language changes along social changes and it also changes from region to region, fron oone social group to another and from individual to individual. The products of such changes are called varieties of the language.lile the rise and fall of xiaojie.
Standard language: the dominant and prestigious variety of language is often called standard language or standard variety or standard dialect., the variety of language which had the highest status in one community or a nation and which is based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of a language.RP andSAEorGA.
Dialect: a variety of language used recognizably in a specific region or by a specific social class is called dialect. Dialects can be classified into four types(regional or geographical dialects and temporal dialects and sociolects and idiolects)
regional or geographical dialects: varieties of language spoken in a geographical area
temporal dialects: varieties of language used at a specific stages in the historical development.
Sociolects: varieties of language used by people belonging to particular social class.
Idiolects: varieties of language used by individual speaker, wirh peculiarities of pronunciation, vocabulary ans grammar.
Register: most speakers of a language speak one way with friends, another on a job interview or presenting a report in class, another taling to children and still another with their parents. These varieties are classified according to use is called register.like(pickled, high, drunk and intoxicated)
M.A.K.Halliday’s register theory is determined by three factor field and mode and tenor
Field of discourse refers to what is happening, including what is talking about.e.g. the fields of linguistics and religion and advertising.
Mode of discourse refers to the medium of language activity which determines the role played by the language in a situation.e.g. speech and writing
Tenor of discourse refers to the relationa among the participants in a language activity.e.g. colloquial and formal
Pidgins and creoles
Pidgins: a pidgin is a variety of language that is not a native language of anyone ,but is learnt on contact situation such as trading. The process by which the pidgin develops is called pidginization.
Creoles: when a pidgin develops beyond its role as a trading language and becomes the first language of a social community, it becomes a creole.
Creoles have large number of native speakers and not restricted at all in their uses. Once a creole is in existence, it may continue almost without change, it may be extinct, it may be evolve into a normal language or gradually merge with its base language through decreolization.
Language planning: the government carefully examine all the languages and dialects in the country and decide which is the standard official language. They also make plans for the regional use and development of other languages and dialects. This is now called language planning.
Status planning(change) and corpus planning(develop)
Diglossia: with a handful of languages, two very different varieties of the same language are used, side by side, for two different sets of functions. A situation of this kind is called diglossia.
Bilingualism: ir refers to a situation where two languages are used by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or nation.
Multilingualis
Code-switching: bilinguals often switch between their two languages or language varieties in the middle of a conversation. This phenomenon is called code-switching.
There are two major kinds of code-switching: situational code-switching (no topic change is involved) and metaphorical code-switching.
Taboo: a word that we are reluctant to use may be called a taboo word.
Euphemisms: a moe acceptable substitute of a taboo word is called a euphemism.(euphemistic)
It has been suggested that there are a great deal of extra politeness in female speech which makes use of the following linguistics devices1 frequent use of hedges2 abundant use of tag question3 gereater use of qualifiers and intensifiers than men4preference for ues of the standard form of language.
Chapter10
Cognitive linguistics: the approach that language and language use are based on our bodily experience and the way we conceptualize it is called congnitive linguistics.
Categorization: the mental process of classification is called categorazation, which is one of the important capabilitied of the human mind.
Category: the special term for this phenomemon is called category(dog and tree)
The classical theory: the classical theory of categorization. It has four assumptions 1 a thing can not both be and not be, cannot both have the feature and not have it, and cannot both belong to a category and not belong to it.2 the features are binary 3 the categories have clear boundaries 4 all members of a category have equal status.
The prototype theory: the best examples of one category are called prototype.(bird and color and fruit)
Levels of categorization: superordinate levels basic levels and subordinate levels
Basic-level categories are basic in three respects:1 perception 2 communication 3 knowledge organization(feature and attributes)
Iconicity of order: it refers to the similarity between temporal events and the linear arrangement of elements in a linguistic construction.(open the bottle and pour wine)
Iconicity of distance: that is, elements which have a close relationship must be placed close together.(causation and multi-adjectives befoere a noun)
Iconicity of complexity: the phenomenon that linguistic complexity reflects conceptual complexity is usually called iconicity of complexity.
Grammaticalization: the process whereby an independent words are shifted to the status of the grammatical elements is called grammaticalization.
The difference of pragmatics and semantics
Semantics is a branch of linguistics which is concerned with the study of meaning in all its formal aspects.
Pragmatics can be defined as the study of language in use. it deals with how speaker uses the language in ways which cannot be predicted by linguistic knowledge alone and how the hearers arrive at the intended meaning of speakers.
We can roughly say that pragmatics takes care of the meaning that is not covered by semantics, pragmatics=meaning-semantics.
新旧信息的区别：
Sometimes, given information need not be introduced into a discourse by a second speaker, because it has been introduced in the previous sentence and can thus be assumed to be in the hear’s mind. A piece of information is sometimes taken as given information because of its close association with sth. that has just been mentioned in the discourse.(Kent returned my car. One of the wheel---) . Noun phrase carrying new information usually receive more stress than those carrying given information, and they are commomly expressed in a more elborate fashion.(There was a tall man with an old-fashioned hat on, quiet elegantly dressed. ). Given information is commonly expressed in more attenuated ways that are abbreviated or reduced. Sometimes given information is simply left out of a sentence altogether.(A:Who’s at th door? B:The mailman.)
皮钦语
A pidgin usually has a limited vocabulary and very reduced grammatical structure which may expand when it is used over a long time or for many purposes. Sometimes, a pidgin dies out of its own accord. At other times it increases in importance, and becomes used in more and more areas of life.
Creoles: when a pidgin develops beyond its role as a trading language and becomes the first language of a social community, it becomes a creole.
Creoles have large number of native speakers and not restricted at all in their uses. Once a creole is in existence, it may continue almost without change, it may be extinct, it may be evolve into a normal language or gradually merge with its base language through decreolization.
对传统语言学的新认识：
Cognitive linguistics provides many new angles for our insight into language. Its significant position in linguistics is evident. It seems to give us hope that some unsolved problems in language studies may be solved in cognitive linguistics.
厕所委婉语：
There are many euphemisms for toilet, such as wc,power room, men’s room, ladies’ room, gentlemen,bathroom,restroom, wash room, washing room, loo, john and so on. In many cultures, people avoid referring to this place by toilet or lavatory because they are unpleasant to the ear. The use of euphemisms reflect social attitudes or social customs. We choose the words or expressions of euphemisms because they are more polite and pleasant to use without embarrassing others.
女性更接近标准语：
There are two possible reasons. One is that women are usually more status-conscious than men and they are aware of their lower status in society and as a result, they may use more standard speech forms in their attempt to claim equality or even achieve a higher social status. The other reason might be attributed to the education. Women are educated to behave like a lady when they are little girls and such education may influence their speech as well.
隐喻转喻与传统隐喻转喻的区别及隐喻和转喻的相同点和不同点
Traditionally, metaphor is a figure of speech in which one thing is compared to another by saying that one thing is the other, as in “He is a tiger”. It is a property of words. In the cognitive linguistic view, metaphor is a property of concepts, and it is a powerful cognitive tool for our conceptualization of abstract categories. According to cognitive linguistics, metaphor is defined as understanding one conceptual domain or cognitive domain in terms of another conceptual domain. According to the classical definition, metonymy is a figure of speech in which one word is substituted for another on the basis of some material, causal or conceptual relation. Some typical substitutions include author for work, abstract features for concrete entities. In the cognitive linguistic view, metonymy is a cognitive process in which one cognitive category, the source, provides mental process to another cognitive category, the target, within the same cognitive domain, or idealized cognitive model.
The main claims made by cognitive linguists in the description of metaphor also apply to metonymy: (i) both are regarded as being conceptual in nature; (ii) both can be conventionalized; (iii) both are means of extending the resources of a language; (iv) both can be explained as mapping processes. Difference: metaphor involves a mapping across different conceptual or cognitive domains, while metonymy is a mapping within one conceptual domain.
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