● Unit 1 Nouns and Noun Phrases
● 1.1 kinds of nouns
● word formation构词法: Simple简单名词, compound复合名词 and derivative nouns派生名词
● lexical meaning词汇意义: Proper专有名词 and common nouns普通名词
Proper nouns专有名词: France, Madrid, Tom
Common nouns普通名词分为四大类：
● 1. collective noun 集体名词：表示一群人或一些事物的总称。 eg: family, team, cattle, police
● 2. individual noun 个体名词：表示单个的人或事物。 eg. boy, house, tiger, insect
● 3. abstract nouns 抽象名词：表示抽象的概念。 eg: glory, honesty, failure, education
● 4. material noun 物质名词：表示无法分为个体的物质。 eg: water, air, bread, rice
● and grammatical form语法意义: Countable nouns, uncountable nouns and nouns that can be countable and uncountable
● 1.2 function of nouns
● 1. The subject of verb: Tom arrived.
● 2. 作补语
The complement of the subject be, become, seem: Tom is an actor.
The complement of the object call: We call her Miss Wang
● 3. 作宾语
The object of a verb: I saw Tom.
The object of a preposition :I spoke to Tom.
● 4. 作同位语: The small desks and chairs are for us students.
● 5. A noun can also be in the possessive case: Tom’s books.
● 6. 称呼语 Helen, open the door.
● 7. 作副词 She was late three times this week.
● 2. Number of Nouns (名词的数)
● 英语可数名词有单数(singular)和复数(plural)两种形式, 表示一个人或事物用单数形式, 表示一个以上的人或事物用复数形式。 名词的单数形式就是词典上所出现的形式,没有变化, 如: a pen, a bed, a room, an English book。
● 名词复数形式有着规则的(Regular plurals)与不规则的(Irregular plurals)变化形式，以及复合名词(compound nouns) 特殊的变化形式。
● 2.1 Regular plurals
● 1.The plural of a noun usually by adding –s to the singular: day-days, dog-dogs, house-houses
“ -s” is pronounced /s/ after a p, k or f sound. Otherwise it is pronounced /z/. When -s is placed after -ce, -ge,-se,or -ze an extra syllable(/IZ/) is added to the spoken word.
● 2.Nouns ending in –o, –s, -ch, -sh, -ss, or -x form their plural by adding -es:
tomato-tomatoes, brush-brushes, box-boxes, church-churches, class-classes
● when es is placed after -ch, -sh, -ss or --x an extra syllable(/IZ/)is added to the spoken word. And after –o, -es is pronounced /Z/.
● Notes:
● 1. 如果词尾的ch发k音，要加-s, e.g. monarch君主, stomach, patriarch族长, epoch
● 2. 但是有些以字母o结尾的外来词或缩写词的复数形式只加-s，如果o前面的是元音字母，也只加-s。e.g.: alto男高音， folio对开纸, cuckoo, radio, bamboo
● 3. Nouns ending in y following a consonant（辅音） form their plural by dropping the -y and adding -ies: baby-babies, country-countries, lady-ladies, fly-flies (例外: stand-bys)
● Nouns ending in y following a vowel（元音） form their plural by adding –s:
boy-boys, day—days, donkey-donkeys
(词尾为quy时，变y为i再加-es，如soliloquy, colloquy
● 4. 14 nouns ending in f or fe drop the f or fe and add ves. These nouns are calf, half, knife, leaf, life, loaf, self, shelf, thief, wife, wolf, elf, housewife
loaf-loaves, wife-wives, wolf-wolves etc.
scarf, wharf, staff, dwarf, handkerchief, hoof, 可以加-s或-ves.
Other words ending in f or fe add s in the ordinary way: cliff-cliffs, safe-safes
● 2.2 Irregular plurals
● 1. A few nouns form their plural by a vowel change改变元音: foot-feet, mouse-mice, woman-women, goose-geese, man-men, tooth-teeth
The plurals of child and ox are children, oxen.
● 2. Some nouns do not change in the plural: deer-deer, sheep-sheep, Chinese-Chinese,
直接从汉语译音的名词一般无复数，但要用斜体，e.g.: li, dan, mu, renminbi, yuan, liang
● 3. Certain words are always plural:
clothes, trousers, barracks, series, species, etc.
● 4. Collective nouns ,crew, family, team, etc., can take a singular or plural verb; singular if we consider the word to mean a single group or unit:
Our team is the best.
or plural if we take it to mean a number of individuals:
Our team are wearing their new jerseys（运动衫).
● 5. crisis类，将-sis换成-ses，如thesis, analysis, diagnosis;
● datum类，将-tum换成-ta ，如stratum, medium;
● criterion类，将-on换成-a ，如 phenomenon;
● plateau类，将-u换成-ux，如adieu;
● nucleus类，将-us换成-i ，如cactus, focus, fungus
● 2.3 Compound nouns
● 1. Normally the last word is made plural:
boy-friends, break-ins, travel agents
But where man and woman is prefixed both parts are made plural: men drivers, women doctors
● 2. The first word is made plural with compounds formed of verb+ er nouns + adverbs: hangers-on（奉迎者）, lookers-on, runners-up（亚军队）
and with compounds composed of noun + preposition + noun: ladies-in-waiting（侍女）, sisters-in-law,
● 2.4 Nouns that can be countable and uncountable
● advice(劝告)--advices(通知)
● green(绿色)--greens(青菜)
● air(空气)--airs(神气)
● good(好事)--goods(货物)
● arm(手臂)--arms(武器)
● iron(铁)--irons(镣铐)
● brain(脑)--brains(智力)
● look(看)--looks(外表)
● Authority（权威)--authorities(当局)
● pain(疼痛)--pains(努力)
● cloth(布)--clothes(衣服)
● paper(纸)--papers(文件)
● condition(情况)--conditions(条件)
● regard(尊敬)--regards(问候)
● content(内容)--contents(目录)
● time(时间)--times(时代)
● custom(风俗)--customs(海关)
● water(水)--waters(水域)
● force(力量)--forces(军队)
● work(工作)--works(作品)
● glass(玻璃)--glasses(眼镜)
● 2.5 Number forms of proper nouns
● Proper nouns are unique in reference and therefore have no plural forms, except for such proper names as the United States, the Philipines, the Netherlands, etc which are themselves plural in form.
● When a proper noun takes a plural ending, it takes on some characteristics of a common noun, eg:
Have you invited the Browns ?
There are two Miss Smiths / Misses Smith in our class.
● 3. Partitives单位词
● Partitives, also called unit nouns, are commonly used to denote a part of a whole整体的一部分 or the quantity of an undifferentiated mass未分化物质的数量. Both count and noncount nouns can enter partitive constructions单位词结构. With plural count nouns, partitive constructions can denote the idea of "a group", "a pack", etc. With noncount nouns, such constructions can achieve countability.
● 1) General partitives一般表示个数的单位词
● a piece of advice
● a bit of trouble
● an item of news
● an article of furniture
● several pieces of bread
● three items of news
● 2) Partitives related to the shape of things表示形状的单位词
● a cake of soap一块肥皂
● a bar of chocolate
● two ears穗of corn
● ten head of cattle / cabbage
● 要表示“牛”的头数，可借助 head(头)这个词。如：ten head of cattle(10头牛)，forty head of cattle(40头牛)等，这些表达中的 head of 也可省略，即可说 ten cattle, forty cattle等，但是我们通常不说 one cattle, 而应说成 one head of cattle, 因为cattle 是一个表复数意义的集合名词。同时应注意：以上各例中的head(头)是一个单复数同形的名词，所以没用 heads 这样的形式。
● 3) Partitives related to volume表示容积的单位词
● a bottle of ink / oil
● two bowls of rice
● several pails of water
● a glass of beer
● 4) Partitives related to the state of action表示动作状态的单位词
● The use of these partitives is limited to certain set phrases, eg:
a fit突然发作, 一阵of anger / coughing / laughter / fever
a peal隆隆声of applause / laughter / thunder
a flash一瞬间of hope / light / lightning
a display表现of courage / force / power / skill / fireworks
● 5) Partitives denoting pairs, groups, flocks, etc表示成双、成组、成群的单位词
● a pair of shoes / scissors/trousers
● a flock (禽、畜等的)群of birds / chickens / sheep / goats
● a herd牧群of elephants / cattle
● a swarm蜂群, 一大群of bees / flies / animals / people
● a troupe一群一伙或一群of actors
● a gang(一)伙, (一)群of hooligans小流氓/ criminals
● a pack<贬>一群of lies / cards / thieves
● a bench of judges
● 4. Genitive名词属格
● CASE格 is a grammatical category. It denotes the changes in the form of a noun or a pronoun showing its relationship with other words in a sentence.
4.1 genitive
4.2 of + noun
4.3 independent genitive
4.4 double genitive
● 4.1 Genitive
● 4.1.1 Formation,
● 4.1.2 meanings
● 4.1.3 and uses of genitive nouns
● 4.1.1 Formation of genitive nouns
● Rules of formation are as follows:
● a) The genitive is formed in writing by adding 's to singular nouns and to those plural nouns that do not end in -s, eg:
● my mother's arrival
● women's clothes
● b) Plural nouns ending in –s takes an apostrophe撇号 as a genitive marker, eg:
the girls’ dormitory
a teachers' college
● c) In compound nouns复合名词 or a postmodified noun phrase有后置限定词的名词词组, the genitive ending is added to the end of the compound or to the end of the noun phrase, eg:
● my mother-in-law's death
● an hour and a half's talk
● somebody else's opinion
● the University of Minnesota's student
● d) In coordinate nouns并列名词, the genitive ending is added to each of the coordinate elements when denoting respective possession, and only to the last coordinate element when denoting common possession. Compare:
Mary's and Bob's books
Mary and Bob 's books
● e) In the construction of "noun phrase + appositive同位语", the genitive ending is added to the end of the appositive. It can also be added both to the end of the noun phrase and to the appositive.
Basel the bookseller's
Basel's, the bookseller's
● 4.1.2 Meanings of genitive nouns
● The genitive is chiefly used to denote “possession”, and therefore, is traditionally called “possessive case所有格". But genitive meanings are by no means restricted to possession. They can be summed up as follows:
● a) Possessive genitive表示所有关系, eg:
Mr Brown 's suitcase has been taken upstairs.
Taiwan is part of China's territory.
● b) Subjective genitive表示主谓关系, eg:
The Prime Minister's arrival was reported in the morning paper.
Everybody was pleased at David's quick recovery from illness.
● c) Objective genitive表示动宾关系, eg:
The enemy's defeat brought the war to an end.
The criminal's punishment will be ten years in prison.
● d) Genitive of origin表示来源, eg:
I haven't received my sister's letter yet.
Newton's law was developed in the 17th century.
● e) Descriptive genitive表示类别, eg:
I first met her on a summer's day.
This workshop makes men's shoes.
● f) Genitive of time, distance, measure, value, etc表示时间、度量、价值等, eg:
two hours' delay
300 kilometres' distance
five dollars' worth of stamps
50 kilograms' weight
● 4.1.3 Uses of genitive nouns
● Genitive nouns are mostly used as central determiners中位限定词 and therefore perform the same function as “possessive determiners物主限定词“ (traditionally called "possessive pronouns"), eg:
● the boy's father = his father
● the woman's husband = her husband
● the students' essays = their essays
● the prime minister's arrival = his / her arrival
● the criminal's punishment = his / her punishment
● Mary's letter = her letter
● the stranger's story = his story
● As central determiner中位限定词, genitive nouns can‘t collocate with other central determiners, nor can they be preceded by a premodifier前置限定词. For instance, we can say "Mary's letter", but not " a Mary's letter; we can say "Mary's interesting letter" instead of " interesting Mary's letter.
● This, however, does not apply to some other genitive nouns such as the descriptive genitive表示类别的属格 and the genitive that denotes time, distance, value or measure表示时间、距离、价值、度量的属格. These genitive nouns are not used as determiners but as premodifiers in the noun phrase, eg:
a children 's book
these children's books
an interesting children 's
some other new children's books
the newly published children's book
a / another three days' journey
a pleasant three days' journey
another very boring three days' journey
● 4.2 of + noun 所有格的用法
● 1、用于无生命的东西 e.g. the rocket of the space shuttle
● 2、用于名词化的形容词 eg. the happiness of the old
● 3、 名词的修饰语较多时 eg. the very long and graceful tail of the old black cat.
● As central determiner, genitive nouns are sometimes interchangeable with of-phrases, eg:
● Possessive genitive：
China's foreign policy = the foreign policy of China
an elephant's trunk = the trunk of an elephant
● Subjective genitive：
the prime minister's arrival = arrival of the prime minister
● Objective genitive:
the criminal's punishment = punishment of the criminal
● Genitive of origin:
Newton's law = the law of Newton
Shakespeare's tragedies = the tragedies of Shakespeare
● But in some cases, we can only use genitive nouns instead of of-phrases, eg:
1) children’s pictorial
● men’s clothing
2) at swords' points剑拔弩张
● a hair‘s breadth间不容发
● a wolf in sheep's clothing
● a bird‘s-eye view鸟瞰
● at a stone‘s throw一箭之遥
● In some other cases, however, we can only use of-phrases instead of genitive nouns, eg:
1) the opinion of the chairman appointed a month ago
the suggestions of those present at the meeting
2) the income of the rich
the struggle of the exploited（被剥削者）
3) the City of Rome
● 4.3 Independent genitive独立属格
● 1 ) Independent genitive is used:
● a) when the missing noun has occurred somewhere in the context and can be easily retrieved:
Her memory is like an elephant's.
Mary's is the largest apartment in the building.
● b) when the missing noun refers to somebody's house or residence:
I'm going to dine at my brother's.
The doctor's is on the other side of the street.
● c) when the missing noun refers to church, school, or other public buildings:
Joe lives near St. Paul's (Cathedral) in London.
He was educated at Merchant Taylor's (school).
● d) when the missing noun refers to commercial firms:
Pickled vegetables are available at the grocer's.
Chinese toys are sold both at Smith's and at Brown's.
● 4.4 Double genitive双重属格
He is a friend of my father's.
= He is one of my father's friends.
This is a painting of my roommate's.
= This is one of the paintings owned by my roommate.
She is a business client of Sir Roger's.
= She is one of Sir Roger's business clients.
● From the above examples, we can see that the independent genitive独立属格 in the of-phrase must be definite specific personal reference确定特指的，一般指人.
● Semantically, a double genitive is different from an ordinary of-phrase. Compare:
● He is a friend of my father's. = He is one of my father's friends.
● He is a friend of my father.
● Implies "He is friendly to my father."
● a portrait of Mr Brown's. = one of the portraits owned or collected by Mr Brown
● a portrait of Mr Brown = a picture of Mr Brown himself
● a criticism of Mr. Hamilton's = one of the criticisms made by Mr. Hamilton
● a criticism of Mr. Hamilton = Mr. Hamilton is criticized
● 5. Gender of the Noun
● 英语名词的性主要是根据其词汇意义所表示的自然性别来划分的。通常有三种形式：阳性、阴性和中性。表示男人和雄性动物的名词为阳性；表示女人和雌性动物的名词为阴性；表示无生命的事物和抽象概念的名词为中性。
● 5.1 表示人的名词的性
● 5.1.1 有些名词的性通过词缀的形式来表示：
actor男演员--actress女演员
emperor皇帝--empress皇后，女皇
god神--goddess女神
hero英雄--heroine女英雄
host男主人--hostess女主人
landlord男房东--landlady女房东
prince王子--princess公主
salesman售货员--saleswoman女售货员
waiter男招待员--waitress女招待员
widower鳏夫--widow寡妇
● 5.1.2 有些表示人的名词性的根据其自然属性来表示：
● bachelor光棍--spinster老处女
● boy男孩--girl女孩
● brother兄弟--sister姐妹
● father父亲--mother母亲
● husband丈夫--wife妻子
● king国王--queen女王
● man男人--woman妇女
● monk和尚--nun尼姑
● nephew侄子--niece侄女
● son儿子--daughter女儿
● uncle叔叔-- aunt婶；姨
● 5.2 表示人的名词的双重性
● 有些名词不分性别，既可表示阳性，也可表示阴性：
adult成年人 artist艺术家
comrade同志 cook厨师
doctor医生 enemy敌人
friend朋友 guest客人
lawyer律师 librarian图书馆管理员
musician音乐家 novelist小说家
parents父母 professor教授
scientist科学家 spouse配偶
teacher教师 writer作家
● 5.3 表示动物的名词的性
● 有些动物的名词根据其自然属性分为阳性和阴性：
buck雄鹿--doe雌鹿
bull公牛--cow母牛
cock公鸡--hen母鸡
lion雄狮--lioness母狮
pig公猪--sow母猪
● 5.4 双重性名词的性的区别
● 在具有双重性的名词前加上表示性别的词，可对他(她)们进行区别：
a woman doctor女医生
a girl friend女朋友
a male nurse男护士
a lady clerk女职员
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