21. Language, broadly speaking, is a means of verbal communication.
22. In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed productivity / creativity .
23. Language has many functions. We can use language to talk about itself. This function is _ metalingual function _.
24. Theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the yo-he-ho theory.
25. Linguistics is the scientific study of language.
26. Modern linguistics is descriptive in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.
27. One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing.
28. The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic linguistic study.
29. Saussure put forward two important concepts. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.
30. Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure’s langue and Chomsky’s competence .
21. Consonant sounds can be either voiced or voiceless, while all vowel sounds are voiced .
22. Consonant sounds can also be made when two organs of speech in the mouth are brought close together so that the air is pushed out between them, causing friction .
23. The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the tongue and the lips.
24. One element in the description of vowels is the part of the tongue which is at the highest point in the mouth. A second element is the height to which that part of the tongue is raised.
25. Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without obstruction .
26. In phonological analysis the words fail / veil are distinguishable simply because of the two phonemes /f/ - /v/. This is an example for illustrating minimal pairs .
27. In English there are a number of diphthongs , which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.
28. Co-articulation refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.
29. Phonemes is the smallest linguistic unit.
30. Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce patterns of sound. These movements have an effect on the air stream coming from the lungs.
21. An initialism is pronounced letter by letter, while an acronym is pronounced as a word.
22. Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with vocabulary .
23. Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: solid , hyphenated and open .
24. All words may be said to contain a root morpheme .
25. A small set of conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns belong to close class, while the largest part of nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs belongs to open class.
26. Back-formation is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a process of shortening.
27. Conversion is extremely productive, because English had lost most of its inflectional endings by the end of Middle English period, which facilitated the use of words interchangeably as verbs or nouns, verbs or adjectives, and vice versa.
28. Words are divided into simple, compound and derived words on the morpheme level.
29.A word formed by derivation is called a derivative , and a word formed by compounding is called a compound .
30. Bound morphemes are classified into two types: affix and bound root .
21. A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.
22. A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.
23. A subject may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.
24. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called predicate .
25. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.
26. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an embedded clause.
27. Major lexical categories are open categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.
28. Adjacency condition on case assignment states that a case assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.
29. Parameters are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.
30. The theory of Case condition explains the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.
21. Semantics can be defined as the study of meaning.
22. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.
23. Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.
24. Words that are close in meaning are called Relational .
25. When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called homophones .
26. Relational opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.
27. Componential analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components.
28. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.
29. A(n) argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence.
30. According to the naming theory of meaning, the words in a lan¬guage are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for.
21. The social group isolated for any given study is called the speech community .
22. Speech variety refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.
23. From the sociolinguistic perspective, a speech variety is no more than a dialectal variety of a language.
24. Language standardization is also called language planning .
25. Social variation gives rise to sociolects which are subdivisible into smaller speech categories that reflect their socioeconomic, educational, occupational background, etc.
26. Stylistic variation in a person’s speech or writing usually ranges on a continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.
27. A regional dialect may gain status and become standardized as the national or official language of a country.
28. The standard language is a superposed socially prestigious dialect of language.
29. Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or vernacular languages.
30. A pidgin typically lacks in inflectional morphemes.
21. The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language.
22. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an utterance .
23. The meaning of a sentence is abstract and decontexualized.
24. Constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable.
25. Performatives were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.
26. A(n) locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.
27. A(n) illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.
28. A(n) commissive is commit the speaker himself to some future course of action.
29. A(n) expressive is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.
30. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of quantity , the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.
21. The Prague School practiced a special style of synchronic Linguistics.
22. The Prague School is best known and remembered for its contribution to phonology and the distinction between phonetics and phonology.
23. The man who turned linguistics proper into a recognized distinct academic subject in Britain was J. R. Firth .
24. Halliday’s Systemic Grammar contains a functional component, and the theory behind his Functional Grammar is systemic .
25. Systemic-Functional Grammar is a(n) sociologically oriented functional linguistic approach.
26. Structuralism is based on the assumption that grammatical categories should be defined not in terms of meaning but in terms of distribution .
27. In the history of American linguistics, the period between 1933 and 1950 is also known as Bloomfieldian Age.
28. Descriptivism in language theories is characteristic of America.
29. The starting point of Chomsky’s TG grammar is his innateness hypothesis.
30. Chomsky argues that LAD probably consists of three elements, that is a hypothesis-maker , linguistic universal, and an evaluation procedure.
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