Composition of Australia's population 澳大利亚的人口构成
人口1800万。绝大多数是移民及其后代，主要是英国人的后裔。
另有25万土著人和托雷斯海峡岛居民占1.5%。
多元文化主义。随着英国影响的减弱，美国和日本的影响不断增加。
Australia's built environment 澳大利亚的人造环境
人造环境指被人营造或改变的部分环境。相对于天然环境。
城市面积很大，80%的人口集中在沿海城市。城区的延伸是因为，澳大利亚人喜欢在自己的土地上建自己的住宅。很多城市有林荫街道和漂亮的公园。
五大城市是：东海岸的悉尼（大型海港），墨尔本（文体中心），布里斯班，阿德莱德（艺术节）；和西海岸的佩斯（气候宜人的美丽城市）。
Political divisions in Australia澳大利亚的行政区域划分
6个州和2个区，各自有一个独立的出海口。
新南威尔士：也叫第一州。面积第四，人口第一，最古老。首府悉尼。工业。
维多利亚州：也叫花园州。大陆面积最小，人口第二。首府墨尔本。制造业，服务业。
昆士兰州：也叫阳光州。面积第二，人口第三，最年轻。首府布里斯班。农业，矿业。
南澳大利亚州：面积第三，人口第四。首府阿德莱德。农业，蛋白石，造船业，伐木制材业。
西澳大利亚州：也叫令人鼓舞的州。面积第一，人口第五。首府佩斯。矿物资源丰富。
塔斯马尼亚岛：也叫假日岛。面积最小，人口少，第二古老。首府霍巴特（现代化城市，深水港，大赌场）。风景胜地。
北方区：地广人稀。首府达尔文。养牛业，矿物资源丰富。
澳大利亚首都直辖区：1901年从新南威尔士划出。国家首都堪培拉（花园城市）。
3. New Zealand 新西兰
New Zealand's geography新西兰的地理状况
The capital of New Zealand is Wellington. It is in the Southern Pacific Ocean. It is the first country to get the new day. It has only one time zone.
首都惠灵顿。位于南太平洋，第一个迎接新一天的国家，只有一个时区。
New Zealand has two main islands: North Island and South Island. They are long and narrow. A third small island is Stewart Island.
两个主要岛屿：北岛和南岛，狭长形，国家距海近。斯图尔特岛位居第三。
New Zealand is a land uplifted high, and much of it is hilly. South Island has large plains. North Island has rich grassland plains. There are mountains all over New Zealand. The highest peak is Mt Cook.
多为丘陵，也有草场平原。全境多山，最高峰为库克山。
In North Island the central plateau is dominated by 3 volcanic mountains. Ruapehu and Ngaurohoe are active volcanoes. The third mountain, Tongariro is dormant. The steam from this area has been producing electricity at geothermal power station at Waitakei. Lake Taupo is the largest lake in New Zealand.
北岛中央是一个火山地热区。三座火山：鲁阿佩胡火山（活），纽鲁霍伊火山（活），汤加里多火山（死）。怀塔基的地热电站用这个区域的蒸气发电。新西兰最大的陶波湖。
The largest river in South Island is the Clutha. The two largest North Island rivers are the Waikato and the Wanganui.
南岛最大的克卢萨河，北岛最大的怀卡托河和黄加雷河。
A fault line, where two parts of the earth’s crust meet, runs the length of the country. Earthquakes and volcanoes are the most serious potential natural disasters.
断层线贯穿新西兰，地震和火山是最严重的潜在灾害。
Characteristics of New Zealand's climate新西兰的气候特点
The climate of New Zealand is generally temperate, but because the country runs north-south, the climate is varied. Seasonal variations are less extreme. Rain falls all year, but it rains more in the winter. New Zealand has changeable weather and it is often windy.
总体上气候温和。各地有差异，季节变化小，全年都有降雨冬季更多。天气多变且多风。
The sunniest town in New Zealand, Nelson, receives 2415 hours of sunshine a year.
纳尔逊是光照时间最长的城镇。
Native plants and animals 当地的植物和动物
Many of New Zealand’s native flowering plants are unique. Some of the world’s oldestplant forms can be found here.
独一无二的有花植物，原始森林中的古老植物。
New Zealand native trees are evergreens, so the country remains green all year round. The red phutukawa is called New Zealand Christmas tree because is flowers in December.
新西兰当地树木为为四季常青, 所以整个国家一年常青. 四季常青树贝壳杉，。红色的常绿树被称为新西兰圣诞树, 因为它十二月开花.
The kiwi is a national symbol and New Zealanders refer to themselves as Kiwis.
基维鸟是民族的象征，新西兰人自比为基维人。(基维鸟也是新西兰的国鸟)
The only native land mammals are two species of bats. All other animals have been introduced, mostly form England. The best known reptile is the lizard-like tuatara, described as a “living fossil”.
唯一的本国陆地哺乳动物是两种蝙蝠，其它均为引进，主要来自英国。最著名的爬行动物是蜥蜴状的喙头蜥，被认为是“活化石”。
Historical background of New Zealand新西兰的历史背景
There are tow histories of New Zealand: the Maori history and the European history. TheEuropean history begins in the 17th century. The first European to visit New Zealand was a Dutchman, Abel Tasman. The first Englishman to New Zealand was Captain James Cook of British Royal Navy. He produced the first complete map of the country.
欧洲人的历史始于17世纪。荷兰人艾贝尔塔斯曼，是第一个考察者。第一个英国考察者，是皇家海军“奋进”号的詹姆斯库克船长，画出第一份完整的新西兰地图。
Businessmen, hunters and missionaries all came to settle here, and the Maori traded with them and learned a new kind of farming, based on pigs and potatoes.
商人，捕猎者和传教士随后到来并定居，毛利人与之交易并学到新的农耕——以养猪和种土豆为基础的农业。
The Treaty of Waitangi 1840 1840年《怀坦吉条约》
In 1840, the first official governor, William Hobson, was sent to negotiate with Maori leaders, and representing Queen Victoria, he signed the Treaty of Waitangi. Modern New Zealand was founded. The anniversary of the signing, February 6, is celebrated as New Zealand National Day, Waitangi Day, and is a national holiday. The Treaty has three articles:1) the Maori people gave the Queen of England the right to make laws for the country; 2) the Maori were promised full exclusive undisturbed possessions over their lands, forests, fisheries and other treasured possessions. If Maori owners wanted to sell land, only the Crown has the right to buy; 3) Maoris were granted all the rights and privileges of British subjects.
1840年，英国人威廉。霍布森，作为第一位官方总督来到新西兰，并代表维多利亚女王与毛利酋长签订了《怀坦吉条约》。协议签订的周年纪念日2月6日，成为新西兰国庆节，也叫怀坦吉节。协议有三条：
第一， 立法权属于英国女王。
第二， 毛利人拥有对土地，资源的所有权。如果毛利人要卖土地，只有英女王有权买。
第三， 毛利人拥有所有英国国民的权利和特权。
Characteristics of Maori culture （Maoritanga） 毛利人的文化特征
Maoritanga is Maoriculture, the Maori way of life and view of the world. Maoritanga is agrowing and changing part of life in New Zealand. Maori views of the world , of nature, of education, of spirituality and of death, are becoming more and more part of the New Zealand way of life. Maoris believe their ancestors, and all living things in the world were descended from the gods. The god Tane succeeded in separating the father, Ranginui the sky and the mother, Ppa-tua-nuku the earth. Tane was the creator of the bush, the trees, and all the creatures living there. Tane formed Hine-ahu-one the woman. Their daughter, Hine-Titama, also bore Tane’s children. From them all people are descended. Maui came later. Maui was a rogue, but with his magic power he brought great benefits to his people. He showed the sun to make the days longer; he discovered the secret of fire. He fished Aotearoa (New Zealand) out of the sea, which was discovered by the great explorer Kupe from Polynesia. After him Polynesians sailed here and established a tribal society. The key elements were kinship (family connections) and links with the land.
毛利人认为，神灵泰恩分开了天父和地母，创造出植物动物和女人，女儿海因泰塔玛。泰恩和他的女儿繁衍了他的孩子们。所有的人都是他们的后代。后来毛伊来到新西兰，他是一个流氓，但是他用他神奇的力量给他的人民带来了好处. 他使太阳显现, 使白天变长, 他发现了火的秘密. 他将新西兰从太平洋中拖起. 新西兰后来被探险家库珀发现，之后波利尼西亚人来到新西兰，建立起亲缘为纽带的部落社会。
The marae--- the meeting house and the land around it --- is the focus of Maori community life. The land and buildings are used for major social, political and ceremonial occasions, including weddings and funerals. The open ground in front of the meeting house is symbolic of the tribal land. The whole marae functions on democratic principles.
马位依指聚会用的房子及其周围土地，是毛利人社区生活的中心。聚会厅用于大型社交，政治和典礼场合，包括婚礼和葬礼。聚会厅前的开阔地是部落土地的象征。部落会议根据民主原则运行。
In 1860s, the relation between Britain and Maori got worse and war broke out in North Island. The Maoris lost a lot of their land, and the basic philosophy of race relations became assimilation, rather than Maori self-determination.
19世纪60年代，关系恶化的英国人与毛利人在北岛爆发战争，毛利人失去大片土地，民族关系的基本原则变为实现同化, 而不是毛利人自我决定。
In 1871, the government made a law to stop Maori children speaking their language at school and Maori language declined, especially after the Second World War.
1871年政府规定禁止毛利儿童在校讲毛利语，毛利语从此衰落，二战后尤为严重。
The increasing number of Maori in cities made Pakeha people much more aware of Maoriculture. The urban migration also brought a Maori protest movement.
二战后，毛利人不断迁往城市，使新西兰白种人更多地感受到毛利文化。城市化移民也促使了维护毛利人利益的抗议运动.
Beginning in the 1970s, mainly among younger urban Maoris, the protest movement gained wider support and publicity. In 1975, there was the Maori Land March to Parliament for the land ownership.
七十年代开始, 抗议运动获得了城市中年轻毛利人的支持和欢迎.. 1975年，城市中的年轻毛利人向议会游行示威，为土地所有权而抗争。
In 1994 land in the centre of Wanganui was occupied by Maori protesters, and the occupation became the focus of radical Maori protest. The protests continue.
1994年，旺奴伊加中部被毛利抗议者占领，成为激进分子抗议的焦点。抗议还将继续。
In 1974, the first bilingual school was established, mostly through the efforts of Maori women, for children to learn Maori language and customs. The Maori language is widely taught.
1974年，在毛利妇女的努力下，第一所双语学校成立，从而让孩子学习毛利语和风俗习惯
Now, Maori is one of the two official languages of New Zealand. Maori cultural revival needs a strong economic base.
现在，毛利语成为新西兰两种官方语言之一，毛利文化的复兴需要强大的经济基础。
4. Ireland 爱尔兰
Ireland's geographical features 爱尔兰的地理特点
首都是都柏林。其它中心城市：科克，利默里克，加尔韦，瓦特福德。
盆地，中部低地地形多样，多沼泽湖泊和低岭。海洋性气候。海岸悬崖耸立。
主要山脉：东部的莫恩山，威克洛山；西南部的麦克利卡迪山。
三大高峰：卡朗图山，布兰登山，卢格纳基拉山。
最大的香农河，提供大部分电力。
动植物从欧洲迁来，与英国类似，但种类比较少。
家畜方面，以科尼马拉矮种马，爱尔兰猎狼和科利蓝闻名。
Climate in Ireland 爱尔兰的气候
温和，湿润和多变。雨量过多。六大气候区：
西北部：雨量充沛，冬季温和常刮大风，植物茂盛。
康诺特省和克莱尔：雨量更充沛，温度稍高，强风限制了树木生长。
西南部：过多的雨量，温暖的冬季，冬季日照少。
东南部：适合农耕。
中部低地：雨量最少的地区。
东北部：较凉爽。农场多为草地，农场和庄稼好。
Ethnic composition of Ireland 爱尔兰的人种构成
基本民族是凯尔特人，混有挪威人，法国人，诺曼人和英国人。没有重要的少数民族。因为种族的同一性，历史上没有种族冲突。
四大人口特征：低出生率，晚婚，男性过剩，高独身比率。
人口流失：1845年的大饥荒使人口锐减，同时人口外迁浪潮雪上加霜，迁居城市使农村地区失去工人，短剧英国潮在继续。
1921爱尔兰自由邦建立后，移民减少，人口外流结束。随着国内条件改善，人口稍有增长。Languages in Ireland 爱尔兰的语言
两种官方语言：
爱尔兰语（凯尔特语）：民族主义者希望在文化上与英国分离。近年作为商业用语和行政用语逐步减少，20世纪90年代只有20%能流利使用。
英语：几乎所有人都能使用。
Irish Catholicism 爱尔兰的天主教
爱尔兰是欧洲最信奉天主教的国家，基督教中心。绝大部分的爱尔兰人为罗马天主教徒，礼拜日做弥撒。美国一半的天主教徒是爱尔兰裔。
最早的传教士：公元431年帕拉迪斯，公元432年帕特里克。
爱尔兰圣公会是最大的非天主教教派，人数一直在减少，很少受到宗教歧视。
Conflict between the English and the Irish 英国人与爱尔兰人间的冲突
英国人与爱尔兰人间的冲突持续了近800年。
1170年英国人入侵爱尔兰，强行推行宗教改革与英国法律，镇压殖民地反叛，波恩战役，《惩罚法》，《加盟法》废除自治政府的议会，大饥荒。
20世纪一二十年，爱尔兰民族主义高涨：1916年复活节起义，宣布成立爱尔兰共和国。1919年爱尔兰共和军与英国政府爆发战争。1921年战争结束，签署《英爱条约》，建立拥有自治的爱尔兰自由邦，在北爱尔兰建立分离的政府。1937年国家名称正式改为爱尔兰。1948年脱离英联邦。1949年4月18日宣布成为共和国。
The issue of Northern Ireland 北爱尔兰问题
爱尔兰极端民族主义者强烈反对北爱尔兰的分离政府。爱尔兰共和军一直要求，与构成北爱尔兰的五个郡统一。都柏林仍然奉行爱尔兰统一的目标。
1992年2月阿尔伯特。雷诺兹任首相以来，爱尔兰与英国同意举行经常性会晤，就北爱尔兰问题的和平解决进行谈判。
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